ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER AND

GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 3
This chapter we will be discussing reviews the concepts of energy, energy transfer
and general energy analysis. We will complete this chapter in Lesson 3 and do
more of the Chapter 3 problems for Lesson 4. This chapter is an introduction to
energy and energy transfer. The terms and basic formulas will be used in later
chapters to analyse systems and energy transfer to/from the system.
By the end of this chapter you must be able to:
• Understand the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy
transfer by heat.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms of
mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and mechanisms
of energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control volume
carries energy across the control surface in addition to any energy transfer
across the control surface that may be in the form of heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
 Overview on Energy
The first law of thermodynamics: (the conservation of energy principle) energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms

Conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed

If we take a room with a fan or a fridge and the

entire room (including air and device) is an
adiabatic closed system (well-sealed, well-
insulated) the only energy is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary. Since the first
law/conservation of energy states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, but change from
one form to another, the room temperature will
rise due to the conversion of electric energy
consumed by the device.
 Forms of Energy
Energy forms – thermal, mechanical (pressure, potential and kinetic), electric, magnetic,
chemical and nuclear.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with respect to outside
reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies. (related to motion and external
effects)
• Kinetic Energy KE (J): energy as a result of motion (ke = J/kg)
• Potential Energy PE (J): energy as a result of elevation in a gravitational field (pe = J/kg)
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity
• Internal Energy U (J): Sum of all microscopic forms of energy (u = J/kg)
There are a number of different forms of energy, but in thermofluids we will mainly look at thermal
energy, mechanical energy which includes pressure, potential and kinetic energies, and a bit of
electrical in/output. All the energies can be divided into macroscopic or microscopic subcategories.
The macroscopic energies are those that a system possesses with respect to outside reference such
as kinetic and potential energies. Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system, for us is the importance the internal energy of the system, denoted by U. This
includes sensible energy (movement of molecules), latent energy (associated with phase), chemical
energy – due to molecule bonds and nuclear energy – bonds within the nucleus.
 Forms of Energy
Sum of all forms of energy = total energy E of a system. Total energy per unit mass of a
system = e:

Kinetic Energy KE:

Potential Energy PE:

The different types of energies can all be added to give the total Energy of a system.
In some cases it will be better to work per unit mass (i.e all parts has been divided
by mass).
 Forms of Energy
Stationary systems: velocity and elevation of CG remains constant during process of closed
systems ΔE = ΔU

Control Volumes: fluid flow over time incorporated by mass flow rate gives energy flow rate

Volume flow rate = Cross

Sectional Area x Velocity

For stationary systems, there is no change in velocity or height therefor the change in total
energy of a closed system equals the change in internal energy.
For an open system (control volume) we must consider the energy change due to mass
flow. Since we look at change, which happens over time, we must consider the mass flow
rate. Mass – energy flows through as a volume and changes the energy of the system.
 Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy – form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work by a
mechanical device such as a turbine
• Kinetic and potential energy and pressure, but not thermal energy
Change in mechanical energy = mechanical work

Mechanical systems involves energy generated with flow rate, velocity, elevation
difference but do not involve the conversion of nuclear, chemical, or thermal
energy to mechanical energy. The mechanical systems are conveniently analysed by
considering the mechanical forms of energy only and the frictional effects that
cause the mechanical energy to be lost. You will note that the formula is very much
similar to that of Bernoulli, which we will also discuss in later chapters.
 Mechanical Energy
Example 3-2 A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady winds at a speed
of 8.5 m/s. Determine the wind energy (a) per unit mass, (b) for a mass of 10 kg, and (c) for
a flow rate of 1154 kg/s for air.
The only harvestable form of energy of atmospheric air is the kinetic energy, which is
captured by a wind turbine.
(a) Wind energy per unit mass of air is
e = ke = V2/2 = (8.5)2/2 = 36.1 J/kg
(b) Wind energy for an air mass of 10 kg is
E = me = (10)(36.1) = 361 J
(c) Wind energy for a mass flow rate of 1154 kg/s is
𝐸ሶ = 𝑚e
ሶ = (1154)(36.1) = 41.7 kW
Wind provides energy by means of kinetic since it is in motion. There is no change
in elevation and the change due to pressure is negligible.
To determine energy for a certain mass, one can simply multiply by the respective
mass.
The wind energy calculated by flow-rate can also be considered as the power
supplied (if there are no losses).
 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference
If body is in a medium at different temperature, energy transfer takes place until thermal
equilibrium is established.
- Direction of transfer - from higher to lower temperature
Adiabatic process - no heat transfer
- well insulated (heat transfer)
- temperatures are the same
energy content can still change (work)
An energy interaction is heat transfer if the driving force is temperature difference.
Otherwise it is work.
Energy can be transferred either by means of work or heat (or mass in open systems). Heat is not
what we know in the general sense of an item’s temperature, but the transfer of energy from
high lo low temperature until equilibrium is reached. If you touch an object and it feels cool, it is
because you are loosing energy to the surface. Thus you are feeling the heat transfer rather than
temperature. The cooler it feels, the steeper the energy transfer gradient. An adiabatic process is
if there are no heat transfer but energy transfer can still take place in the form of work
 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
Conduction – from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles
Convection – between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion
Radiation – due to emission of electromagnetic waves (photons)

Heat transfer can take place with three

methods: 1) conduction – between solids in
direct contact, if you touch a surface,
conduction is taking place. 2) convection –
between solid and flowing fluid (note that
air is also a fluid) the energy transferred
causes the fluid to move. 3) radiation – due
to electromagnetic waves, all materials
radiate thermal energy – the energy used by
an infrared camera to determine a object’s
temperature
 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat transfer Q (J) or per unit mass:

Rate of heat transfer 𝑄ሶሶ (J/s)

- If 𝑄ሶ varies over time

- If 𝑄ሶ remains constant over time

Heat transfer is denoted by the symbol Q or q if working in

per unit mass, and the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer
over time) by 𝑄.ሶ In MTF12A we will only consider constant
heat transfer over time. In adiabatic systems, there is no
heat transfer
 Energy Transfer by Work
Work is energy interaction between system and surroundings (force acting through a
distance) – rising piston, rotating shaft, electric wire

Energy crossing boundary of closed system that is not heat = work

• Heat = energy transfer due to temperature difference
• Work = energy transfer associated with a force acting a distance
Amount of work done W (J) or work done per unit mass

Rate of work done 𝑾ሶ (J/s) = Power (W)

Besides heat, energy can also be transferred by means

of work. As you know, work is defined as a force acting
a certain distance, if no distance was moved/travelled,
then no work has been performed. Work is denoted by
W, or w when working per unit mass, and the rate of
work done 𝑊ሶ also known as the mechanical power
 Energy Transfer
Heat transfer and work done are directional quantities and should have magnitude and
direction
• If done by a system = positive (out)
• Work done on a system = negative (in)
• Or subscripts in and out

If direction is unknown, assume a direction.

• Positive result = correct assumed direction
• Negative result = opposite of assumed

When working with energy transfer in formulas, the heat

supplied to a system is positive where the work done on a
system is negative. You will notice this again in further
chapters. If it confuses you, use the subscripts in and out,
with “in” as positive (adding energy to the system) and
“out” as negative (removing energy)
 Heat vs Work
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms not a property (depends on more than just
the state), similarities between them:
1. Recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, has no meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (depend on the path followed and end states).

Point 1 and 2 on the graph represents states. To

change from one state to another a process of
energy transfer takes place, either by heat or
work. Once the process is complete the system
will posses new properties at state but does not
posses work or heat. In further chapters you will
also see that the area underneath the process
curves represent the energy transferred either in
or out
 Energy Transfer
Example 3-3 A candle is burning in a well-insulated room. Taking the room (the air plus the
candle) as the system, determine (a) if there is any heat transfer during this burning process
and (b) if there is any change in the internal energy of the system.
(a) The interior surfaces of the room form the system boundary. Heat is recognized as it
crosses the boundaries. Room is well insulated = an adiabatic system and no heat will
pass through the boundaries. Therefore, Q = 0 for this process.
(b) The internal energy exist in various forms (sensible, latent, chemical, nuclear). During
the process part of the chemical energy is converted to sensible energy. Since there is
no increase or decrease in the total internal energy of the system, ΔU = 0.

When starting a problem like this one, highlight all aspects mentioned, i.e. well insulated
room, is considered as an adiabatic system. Secondly, it helps if you select the system
correctly, the question refers to the room, thus it is best to use the whole room with
contents as system.
Since the system is stationary, no change in potential or kinetic energy, the total change in
energy equals the change in internal energy U. No additional energy is supplied (electrical
or other work) thus no change in energy, and therefor no change in internal. The candle
burning is only changing one form of internal energy already in the system, to another
 Energy Transfer
Example 3-4 A potato initially at room temperature (25°C) is being baked in an oven that is
maintained at 200°C. Is there any heat transfer during this baking process?
Problem is not well-defined since the system is not specified. If the potato is the system: the
outer surface of the skin of the potato is the system boundary. Part of the energy in the
oven will pass through the skin to the potato. Since the driving force for this energy transfer
is a temperature difference, this is a heat transfer process.

Carefully consider the information before stating

that a problem is not well defined. And if you do
find that it is ill defined, create a scenario how it
could have been defined and provide an answer.
This can lead to extra marks as you show a clear
understanding.
If the oven with the potato were selected as the
system (assuming that the oven is well insulated)
would there be heat transfer?
 Energy Transfer
Example 3-5 A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating element. If
the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken to be the system, determine
whether this is a heat or work interaction.
The interior surfaces of the oven form the system boundary. The energy content of the oven
increases as evidenced by a rise in temperature. The energy transfer to the oven is not
caused by a temperature difference between the oven and the surrounding air. It is caused
by electrons crossing the system boundary.
This is a work interaction.

For heat transfer, energy will be transferred from a higher

temperature to a lower temperature. It does not “generate”
energy. If it is not heat transfer, then it is work transfer.
There is no movement, so it is not mechanical work, but
rather a change of electrical to thermal energy. Is the energy
radiated from the element’s surface, or is
convection/conduction taking place?
 Energy Transfer
Example 3-6 If the system in Example 3–5 is taken as only the air in the oven without the
heating element is it heat or work interaction.
The system boundary will include the outer surface of the heating element and will not cut
through it. No electrons will be crossing the system boundary at any point. The energy
generated in the interior of the heating element will be transferred to the air around it as a
result of the temperature difference between the heating element and the air in the oven.
This is a heat transfer process.

Changing the system of the previous example slightly by

excluding the element from the system, means that energy
will be transferred to the air in the oven from a hot object to
the cooler air. Thus heat transfer is taking place.
 Mechanical Forms of Work
Two requirements for a work interaction between a system and its surroundings to exist:
(1) there must be a force acting on the boundary,
(2) the boundary must move.

Shaft work – energy transmission with a rotating shaft

- Torque acting a certain distance
- Work done
- Power Transmitted

For energy to be transferred by means of work, there should be movement (excl

when electrical work is used to convert into thermal energy). Systems moving
linearly follow the conventional W=Fx formula and systems working with rotating
movement the W=Tϴ, where ϴ is the angular distance travelled. To calculate the
power of the work, one divide by time. In angular motion applications the formula
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃= comes in very useful
60
 Mechanical Forms of Work
Example 3-7 Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car when the torque
applied is 200 N·m and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm).

The shaft power is determined directly from:

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑊ሶ sh = 2π𝑛T
ሶ or 𝑃 = 60
= (2π)(4000/60)(200)
= 83.8 kW

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Since this is an angular motion problem, one can check if the formula 𝑃 = 60 can
be used. The solution provided by the textbook essentially uses this formula where
𝑛ሶ (rev/s) = N(rpm)/60. If revolutions per second was already given, don’t divide
with 60.
 Mechanical Forms of Work
Example 3-8 Consider a 1200-kg car cruising steadily on a level road at 90 km/h. Now the
car starts climbing a hill that is sloped 30° from the horizontal. If the velocity of the car is to
remain constant during climbing, determine the additional power that must be delivered by
the engine.
The additional power required is simply the work that needs to be done per unit time to
raise the elevation of the car, which is equal to the change in the potential energy of the car
per unit time: z and h are used for
𝑊ሶ g = mg Δz/Δt = mgVvertical vertical height. The
textbook uses vertical
= (1200)(9.81)(90/3.6)(sin 30°)
velocity since z/t = V (when
= 147 kJ/s = 147 kW velocity is constant).
Alternatively, height can be
calculated separately and
then substituted
Additional power is required since the total energy required is changed. The change is due to
elevation therefor the change in potential energy should be determined. You will note that
potential energy is calculated with mg (a force) x h (a distance) therefor it is work energy
transfer. Power is the rate of work done (W/t). You can use P for power instead of 𝑊ሶ if the
context allows it and it isn’t confused with pressure (especially when working with fluid).
 Mechanical Forms of Work
Example 3-9 Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car from rest to a
velocity of 80 km/h in 20 s on a level road.
The work needed to accelerate a body is simply the change in the kinetic energy of the body
𝑊 a = 0.5m(V22 – V12)
= 0.5(900)((80/3.6)2 – 02)
= 222 kJ

The average power is determined from

𝑊ሶ a = Wa/Δt = 222k/20
= 11.1 kW

Accelerating means change in kinetic energy.

One can calculate the acceleration
separately and then use F = ma and W = Fx
to get the same answers
 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms
• For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system and the details of
the process.
• the change in total energy during an adiabatic process must be equal to the work done

Energy can be transferred by heat or work to a closed system. In adiabatic systems, no

heat transfer takes place, thus the change in energy equal the work done by and/or to
the system.
 Energy Balance
Stationary systems: ΔE = ΔU

The change in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that
process.

Using the conservation of energy, one can conclude

that the change in total energy equals to the total
energy added minus the total energy removed
from the system.
The change in total energy also equals the change
in internal energy + change in kinetic energy +
change in potential energy.
 Energy Balance
Heat Transfer, Q - to a system (heat gain) increases internal energy, from a system (heat
loss) decreases it
Work Transfer, W - to a system (work done on a system) increases the energy, from a system
(work done by the system) decreases it.
Mass Flow, m - additional mechanism of energy transfer - into a system, increases the
energy, leaves the system, decreases the energy

The formula can be re-written as change in heat transferred + change in work done +
energy change due to mass flow (particles added/removed in open systems changes
internal energy) equal the change in system energy. Note the subscripts in and out are
used to ease the use of signs (directions).
 Energy Balance
Example 3-10 A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle
wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the
fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine
the final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.
Take the contents of the tank as a closed system (no mass crosses the boundary). The
volume of a rigid tank is constant, and thus there is no moving boundary work. Heat is lost
from the system and shaft work is done on the system. Applying the energy balance gives:
Wsh,in – Qout = ΔU = U2 - U1
100k - 500k = U2 - 800 k
U2 = 400 kJ

A rigid tank does not move, therefor no change in KE

and PE. Thus the change in system energy equals the
change in internal energy. The system energy also
equal the change in heat + change in work. The fluid
loses heat (negative/out) and work is done on the fluid
(positive/in).
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished.

Mechanical efficiency

pump

turbine
When calculating efficiency of a system, one compares the output to the input. The
efficiency/performance will always be output divided by input (multiplied by 100 to
supply answer in %) and will never exceed 100% as we cannot create energy, but rather
𝑜𝑢𝑡
experience losses (heat, friction). If you remember 𝜂 = 𝑖𝑛 it is not needed to
remember the other formulas, but you will need to know what is “in” and “out” of the
system. With a pump the energy “in” is typically electrical (from a motor) and “out” is
the energy in the fluid. With a turbine, the reverse is true since it is used to harvest the
fluid energy to change to electrical (with aid of generator).
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

The same principle is applied to motors and generators (a motor supplies

mechanical power by converting electrical power, where a generator does the
inverse). Efficiencies of a system can also be combined. If the generator and turbine
experiences a loss (therefor not 100% efficient) then the total efficiency equals
η(turbine) x η(generator)
 Using the mass flow-rate
instead off mass, one
Energy Efficiency determine the rate of work
done, or in other words, the
power.
Example 3-15 Electric power is to be generated by installing a hydraulic turbine–generator
at a site 70 m below the free surface of a large water reservoir that can supply water at a
rate of 1500 kg/s steadily. If the mechanical power output of the turbine is 800 kW and the
electric power generation is 750 kW, determine the turbine efficiency and the combined
turbine–generator efficiency of this plant. Neglect losses in the pipes.
The potential energy of water at point 1 is
pe1 = gz1 = (9.81)(70) = 0.687 kJ/kg
The rate at which the mechanical energy of water is supplied to the turbine:
Δ𝐸ሶ mech,fluid = 𝑚(e
ሶ in - eout) = (1500)(0.687k - 0) = 1031 kW
The combined turbine–generator and the turbine efficiency
are determined from their definitions to be
ηturbine-gen = 𝑊ሶ elect,out /Δ𝐸ሶ mech,fluid = 750 kW/1031 kW
= 0.727 or 72.7%
ηTurbine = 𝑊ሶ shaft,out /Δ𝐸ሶ mech,fluid = 800 kW/1031 kW
= 0.776 or 77.6%
 End of Lesson 3
This concludes the third lesson as well as our second chapter. Head over to the TEAMS quiz
on Lesson 3. It will require some calculations which is also on the Chapter 3 homework
problems that you can complete. Any questions related to Lesson 3 can also be asked there
during class-period, or on the discussion boards during the week. For Lesson 4 more of the
chapter 3 problems will be discussed.
Problems for homework:
3-16
3-29
3-42
3-48
3-59
3-68