Thermodynamic Cycles

NUCL 2010
Instructor: Dr. M.H. Kaye
Matthew.Kaye@ontariotechu.ca
Chapter 2 – Energy
Chapter 2 – Introduction to Energy
• From Chapter 1:
• Fundamental Law: Conservation of Energy.
• Energy can’t be created or destroyed
• Forms of Energy:
• Thermal, Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Nuclear
• Potential Energy (energy of position) and Kinetic Energy (energy of motion)
• Energy can be transferred by either Heat or Work (closed system)
Forms of Energy (2.2)
• So, the total energy (E) of a system is the sum of the various forms of
energy:
• In other words, the sum of:
• Thermal, Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Nuclear, Potential, and Kinetic Energy
• And if we want the total energy of a system on a unit mass basis (e):
𝐸𝐸
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1
𝑚𝑚
References
• One of the limitations of Thermodynamics is that it does not provide
information about the absolute value of the total energy;
• Thermodynamics deals with the change of the total energy with
reference to some convenient reference value, which we assign.
• As an analogy, consider the potential energy of dropping a brick off the
ERC. The potential energy that the brick has is related to the height of
the ERC. We don’t need to know the elevation above sea-level that the
building has…
Macroscopic vs Microscopic Forms of Energy
• Macroscopic forms of energy are those the system has as a whole with
respect to some outside reference – e.g., potential or kinetic energy
• Potential Energy: 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (kJ)
1
• Kinetic Energy: 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 (kJ)
2
• Microscopic forms of energy are related to the molecular structure and
the molecular activity and are independent of the outside reference
frames. The sum of these is called the internal energy (U).
1
• Thus: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 (kJ)
2
So, what???
• Well, usually a system that we are interested in is a stationary system,
so the potential energy and kinetic energy terms are 0. This means
that the total energy is the internal energy of the system.
• So: ∆E = ∆U

• We assume the system is a stationary system, unless otherwise

stated.
Control Volumes and Flow Rates
So, imagine we are interested in the flow of fluid through a pipe for a long
period of time. The energy flow associated with the fluid stream can be
expressed in rate form. Note we use a dot over a quantity to indicate rate.
Mass flow rate, 𝑚𝑚,̇ is the
amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
unit time.
Note: 𝐸𝐸,̇ energy flow rate (kW) 𝐸𝐸̇ = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒
̇
v = velocity; V = volume
Internal Energy
• Sensible energy is the internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energy of the
molecules in the system. See to the right.
• Latent energy is the internal energy associated
with phase of system.
• Chemical energy is associated
with atomic bonds of molecule
• Nuclear energy is associated
with bonds in nucleus of atom
Mechanical Energy
• Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device.
• Kinetic and potential energies are mechanical energy;
• Thermal energy is not mechanical energy (doesn’t meet definition).
Energy Transfer by Heat
• Energy can cross the boundary of a
closed system as: heat or work.
• Heat is defined as the form of
energy that is transferred between
two systems because of a
temperature difference.

• An adiabatic process means that

there isn’t any heat transferred.
Adiabatic Process versus Isothermal Process
• A process can be adiabatic in two
ways:
• Insulated to prevent heat flow;
• System and surroundings at same T;
• An adiabatic process can still have
the temperature change within it
by other means such as work;
• Q = amount of heat transferred
• q = amount of heat transferred
per unit mass
Three Methods of Heat Transfer
• Conduction – transfer of energy from more energetic particles to less
energetic particles via particle interaction;
• Convection – transfer of energy between a solid surface and an adjacent
fluid that is in motion; involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion;
• Radiation – transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons)
Energy Transfer by Work
• Recall that work (unit: J = N·m) is a
force acting through a distance;
• So, any energy entering or leaving
the system that is not due to a +
difference in temperature (i.e., heat) ―
is work.
• Both heat and work are directional
quantities. Need to specify sign.
• By convention:
• heat in and work done by are +
• heat out and work done on are –
Heat and work are mechanisms and not properties
Similarities of Heat and Work
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and the
surroundings, thus:
• Neither are a property;
• Both are boundary phenomena;
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or work ;
• Both are associated with a process, not a state; therefore, they have no meaning at
a state;
• Both are path functions (in other words, the magnitude depends on the path
followed during a process, as well as the end states).
Mechanical Forms of Work
• Work = Force × distance; and no work is done if either quantity = 0.
• So obviously for work to be done between a system and its surrounding
there must be a force present at the boundary (Force ≠ 0) and the
boundary must move (distance ≠ 0).
• Some examples of mechanical work:
2
• from a force causing a displacement: 𝑊𝑊 = ∫1 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 where s represents the
displacement;
• from a turning shaft: 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 where n represents the number of
revolutions and t represents the applied torque;
1
• from a displaced spring: 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥22 − 𝑥𝑥12 where k represents the spring
2
constant and x represents the displacement of the spring from rest (i.e., x = 0)
First Law of Thermodynamics (Can’t Win)
• Also know as the Conservation of Energy Principle
• The Law states:
• Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change
forms
• In other words – you can’t win (i.e., you can’t create energy out of nothing)
• So, we can use this law to establish relationships between total energy (E),
heat (Q), work (W), and other quantities.
• We are going to harness these ideas and the first law
Joule’s Experiments with an Adiabatic Process
• In the first half of the 19th century,
James Joule performed a series of
experiments on systems under adiabatic
conditions.
• Work is performed by the weight; As
the weight descends, the paddle wheel
turns, which causes the temperature to
increase.
• Work performed is directly
proportional to temperature rise.
Two More Examples
• A consequence of the First Law is that Total
Energy as a property can be defined.
• For any adiabatic process of a closed system,
the net work is the same between two specified
states; Therefore, the value of the net work
only depends on the end states.
• This value corresponds to a change in the total
energy.
• And if the system is adiabatic DE = work
Energy Balance Example
• System gains 15 kJ of heat from outside and loses 3 kJ to the outside;
The work shaft does 6 kJ of work.
• Total energy gain is +18 kJ (as shown)

𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = ∆𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

Energy Balance Encore
• So, an energy change of a system is simply the difference between the
energy evaluated at the end of the process less the evaluation at the
beginning of the process. As a formula:
∆𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐸𝐸1
• Recalling all the forms that energy can take (slide 5), we can describe the
change in the total energy of a system during a process as:
∆𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + ∆𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
And ∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢1 0
1
∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 and ∆𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12
2
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer
• Energy can be transferred in 3 forms: Heat, Work, and Mass flow

Note that mass

is really a form
of energy

𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑄𝑄𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑄𝑄𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑊𝑊𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Energy Conversion Efficiencies
• Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸, 𝜂𝜂 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

This is section 2.7 – I suggest you read the 8 pages (there are sample problems so it is
pretty easy reading). It talks about efficiency and also about misconceptions
surrounding the term.
Other Types of Efficiencies and Terms
• Heating Value of the fuel is the amount of heat released when a unit of
fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion
products are cooled to the room temperature.
• This leads to the efficiency of combustion equipment:

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Higher and Lower Heating Value
• Depending on whether the water in the combustion products forms a
liquid or vapour, there are different heating values.

Lower Heating Value (LHV): the

water leaves as a vapour;
Higher Heating Value (HHV): the
water in the combustion gases
completely condenses and so the heat
of vaporization is also recovered.
In this case HHV = 47300 kJ·kg-1
Other Efficiencies - continued
• Power Plant efficiency is defined as the net electrical power output to the
rate of fuel energy input (Eq. 2.43):
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜂𝜂𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 × 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Other Efficiencies - continued
• Mechanical efficiency (Eq. 2.44):
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = =1−
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

• Pump efficiency (Eq. 2.45):

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 Δ𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢
𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ̇
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

• Turbine efficiency (Eq. 2.46):

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ̇
Δ𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒
Other Efficiencies - continued
• Motor efficiency (Eq. 2.47):

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

• Generator efficiency (Eq. 2.48):

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Other Efficiencies - continued
• Combined pump and motor efficiency (Eq. 2.49):
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 Δ𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

• Combined turbine and generator efficiency (Eq. 2.50):

𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = =
𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒 Δ𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
For Next Lecture…
• Please read ahead to Chapter 3 – next Monday we start there.
Questions
• Ask now. Please state name before asking.
• Or, e-mail me at: Matthew.Kaye@ontariotechu.ca