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Thermodynamic
Energy and Energy Transfer
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and
their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.
• Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value
of the total energy. It deals only with the change of the total
energy, which is what matters in engineering problems.
• The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses
as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame.
• The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular
activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the

internal energy of a system and is denoted by U.

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Energy forms

The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant only in
some specialized cases and are usually ignored.

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Energy forms

Closed systems whose speed and elevation of the center of gravity

remain constant during a process are frequently referred to as
stationary systems.
The change in the total energy ΔE of a stationary system is identical
to the change in its internal energy ΔU.

Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time,
and it is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid
stream in the rate form.

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Energy forms

• Kinetics, potential and internal energy, constitute the total energy of

a system, can be contained or stored in a system.

• The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the

dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions.

• The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the system boundary

as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by
a system during a process.

• The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed

system are heat transfer and work.

• A control volume can also exchange energy via mass transfer since
any time mass is transferred into or out of a system, the energy
content of the mass is also transferred with it.

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Heat & Work

• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two

systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference

• Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a

distance.

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 Mechanical Energy
• Many engineering systems are designed to transport a fluid from one
location to another at a specified flow rate, velocity, and elevation
difference, and the system may generate mechanical work in a
turbine or it may consume mechanical work in a pump or fan during
this process.

• Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical

energy.
• Pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work,
called flow work, in the amount of P/ρ per unit mass.

• Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is

convenient to view it as part of the energy of a flowing fluid and call
it flow energy.

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Mechanical Energy

Example

A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady winds at a

speed of 8.5 m/s. Determine the wind energy (a) per unit mass, (b) for
a mass of 10 kg, and (c) per second for a flow rate of 1154 kg/s for air.

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Energy Transfer by Heat

• The direction of energy transfer is always from the higher

temperature body to the lower temperature one.
• Once the temperature equality is established (“Thermal
equilibrium”), energy transfer stops.
• In the processes described above, energy is said to be transferred
in the form of heat.
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Energy Transfer by Heat
• Energy interaction is heat only if it takes place because of a
temperature difference.

• There cannot be any heat transfer between two systems that are at
the same temperature.

• Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized only as it crosses the

boundary of a system.

• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an

adiabatic process.

There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:

• The system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of

heat can pass through the boundary.
• The system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and
therefore there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat
transfer.
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Energy Transfer by Heat
As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ (or Btu) being the most
common one.

If heat rate changes with time:

If heat rate is constant during the process:

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Energy Transfer by Work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its

surroundings.

if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it

must be work.

Ex: A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.

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Energy Transfer by Work
As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ (or Btu) being the most
common one.

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the specification of
both the magnitude and direction.

Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive;

Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.

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Energy Transfer by Work

Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a

system and its surroundings

• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross

the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
• Neither can be possessed by a system. Systems possess energy,
but not heat or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties,
heat or work has no meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).

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Energy Transfer by Work
• Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol
δ. Therefore, a differential amount of heat or work is represented
by δQ or δW, respectively, instead of dQ or dW.

• Properties, however, are point functions (i.e., they depend on the

state only, and not on how a system reaches that state), and they
have exact differentials designated by the symbol d.

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Examples

A potato initially at room temperature (25°C) is

being baked in an oven that is maintained at
200°C, as shown in Fig. 3–21. Is there any heat
transfer during this baking process?

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Examples

A well-insulated electric oven is being heated

through its heating element. If the entire oven,
including the heating element, is taken to be
the system, determine whether this is a heat
or work interaction.

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Examples

if the system is taken as only the air in the

oven without the heating element.

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Forms of Work
Electrical Work
Electrons crossing the system boundary do electrical work on the
system. In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect
of electromotive forces, doing work.

In form of electrical power:

Where: V is the potential difference, N are coulombs of electrical

charge and I is the current

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
There are several different ways of doing work, each in some way
related to a force acting through a distance.

There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system

and its surroundings to exist: (1) there must be a force acting on the
boundary, and (2) the boundary must move.

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work

Shaft Work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work

Shaft Work
Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car when the
torque applied is 200 N · m and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000
revolutions per minute (rpm).

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
Spring Work

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
Elastic solid bars

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Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
Stretching of a Liquid Film

Surface tension

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Exercise

The length of a spring can be changed by (a) applying a force to it or

(b) changing its temperature (i.e., thermal expansion). What type of
energy interaction between the system (spring) and surroundings is
required to change the length of the spring in these two ways?

Consider an electric refrigerator located in a room. Determine the

direction of the work and heat interactions (in or out) when the
following are taken as the system: (a) the contents of the refrigerator,
(b) all parts of the refrigerator including the contents, and (c)
everything contained within the room during a winter day.
MOVING BOUNDARY
WORK
One form of mechanical work frequently encountered in practice is
associated with the expansion or compression of a gas in a piston–
cylinder device.

During this process, part of the boundary (the inner face of the piston)
moves back and forth.

The expansion and compression work is often called moving boundary

work, or simply boundary work.

Work, being a path function, cannot be determined analytically without

a knowledge of the path. Therefore, the boundary work in real engines
or compressors is determined by direct measurements.
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We analyze the moving boundary work for a quasiequilibrium process,
a process during which the system remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.

Under identical conditions, the work output of the engines is found to be

a maximum, and the work input to the compressors to be a minimum
when quasi-equilibrium processes are used in place of
nonquasi-equilibrium processes.

the volume change dV is positive during an

expansion process (volume increasing)
and negative during a compression
process (volume decreasing).

the boundary work is positive during an

expansion process and negative during a
compression process.

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the area under the process curve on
a P-v diagram is equal, in magnitude,
to the work done during a quasi-
equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed
system.

A gas can follow several different

paths as it expands from state 1 to
state 2. In general, each path has a
different area underneath it, and
since this area represents the
magnitude of the work.

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 Difference between these two is the net
work done during the cycle

The pressure at the inner face of the

piston is used for P.

It has to appear somewhere else and we must be able to account for

it since energy is conserved.

In a car engine, for example, the boundary work done by the

expanding hot gases is used to overcome friction between the piston
and the cylinder, to push atmospheric air out of the way, and to rotate
the crankshaft.
But note that the energy transferred by the system as work must equal
the energy received by the crankshaft, the atmosphere, and the energy
used to overcome friction.
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A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of heat
transfer to the surroundings, the temperature and pressure inside the
tank drop to 65°C and 400 kPa, respectively. Determine the boundary
work done during this process.

A frictionless piston–cylinder device contains 10 lbm of steam at 60

psia and 320F. Heat is now transferred to the steam until the
temperature reaches 400F. If the piston is not attached to a shaft and
its mass is constant, determine the work done by the steam during
this process.

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A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and
80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the
temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work
done during this process.

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Polytropic Process
During actual expansion and compression processes of gases,
pressure and volume are often related

where n and C are constants. A process of this kind is called a

polytropic process

Ideal gas

n=1

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A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200 kPa.
At this state, a linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is
touching the piston but exerting no force on it. Now heat is
transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to compress the
spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-
sectional area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine (a) the final
pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the total work done by the gas, and
(c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to compress it.

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References
[1] Cengel, Y., Introduction to thermidynamics and heat transfer,
Second edition, Mc Graw Hill, United states, 2008.