Chapter III

Energy Transfer
(Heat, work and mass)
 3.1 Forms of Energy
• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
change.
• Energy can exist in numerous forms: such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy E of a system.
• The various forms of energy that make up the total
energy of a system are classified in two groups:
 ▪ Macroscopic
▪ Microscopic
• Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system
possesses as a whole with respect to some outside
reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
• The energy that a system possesses as a result of
its motion relative to some reference frame is
called kinetic energy (KE).
or, on a unit mass basis,

▪ The energy that a system possesses as a result

of its elevation in a gravitational field is called
potential energy (PE) and is expressed as

or, on a unit mass basis,

• In the absence magnetic, electric, and surface
tension effects, the total energy of a system
consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal
energies and is expressed as:

• or, on a unit mass basis,

• Microscopic- related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity, and they are independent
of outside reference frames.
• Sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is
called the internal energy of a system and is
denoted by U.
Examples
• Latent energy- related with the phase of a
system.
• Chemical energy-with the atomic bonds in a
molecule.
• Nuclear energy-with the strong bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.
• Sensible energy- portion of internal energy
related with kinetic energies of the molecules.
• The total energy of a system, can be contained or
stored in a system-known as static forms of
energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a system can be
viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions. They represent the energy
gained or lost by a system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy interactions
associated with a closed system are heat transfer
and work.
• Most closed systems remain stationary during a
process and thus experience no change in their
kinetic and potential energies.
• Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of
the center of gravity remain constant during a
process are frequently referred to as stationary
systems.
• The change in the total energy of a stationary
system is identical to the change in its internal
energy .
 3.2 Energy Transfer by Heat & Work

• Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system

in the form of heat and work.
 Energy Transfer by Heat
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or a system and
its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
difference. Examples:

Hot baked potato gets cool down

Cold soda left in the env’t, eventually gets warm
• Temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer.
• The larger the temperature difference, the higher is
the rate of heat transfer.
• The direction of energy transfer is always from the
higher temperature body to the lower temperature
one.
• Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as it
crosses the system boundary.
• A process during which there is no heat transfer is
called an adiabatic process.
• There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
• Either the system is well insulated so that only
a negligible amount of heat can pass through
the boundary, or
• Both the system and the surroundings are at
the same temperature and therefore there is no
driving force (temperature difference) for heat
transfer.

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surrounding
• Heat has energy units, kJ.
• The amount of heat transferred during the
process between two states (states 1 and 2) is
denoted by Q12, or just Q.
• Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is
denoted q and is determined from:

• Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of

heat transfer (the amount of heat transferred
per unit time) instead of the total heat
transferred over some time interval.
• The heat transfer rate 𝑄ሶ has the unit kJ/s, which is
equivalent to kW.
• When 𝑄ሶ varies with time, the amount of heat
transfer during a process is determined by
integrating 𝑄ሶ over the time interval of the process:

• When 𝑄ሶ remains constant during a process, this

relation reduces to:

• Where ∆𝑡 =t2- t1 is the time interval during which

the process takes place.
• Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
– conduction,
– convection,
– and radiation.
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.
• Convection is the transfer of energy between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the
emission of electromagnetic waves (or photons).
 Energy Transfer by Work
• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between
a system and its surroundings.
• As mentioned earlier, energy can cross the
boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or
work.
• Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of
a closed system is not heat, it must be work.
• More specifically, work is the energy transfer
associated with a force acting through a distance.
 –A rising piston,
–a rotating shaft,
• Work has energy units kJ.
• The work done during a process between states 1
and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply W.
• The work done per unit mass of a system is
denoted by w and is expressed as

• The work done per unit time is called power and

is denoted W.
• The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
• Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus
the complete description of a heat or work
interaction requires the specification of both the
magnitude and direction.
• One way of doing that is to adopt a sign
convention.
• The generally accepted formal sign convention
for heat and work interactions is as follows:
– heat transfer to a system and work done by a system
are positive;
– heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Another way is to use the subscripts in and out
to indicate direction.

•
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms
between a system and its surroundings, and
there are many similarities between them:
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a
system as they cross the boundaries. That is,
both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a
state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes
depend on the path followed during a process
as well as the end states).
• Path functions have inexact differentials
designated by the symbol δ.
• Therefore, a differential amount of heat or work is
represented by δQ or δW, respectively, instead of
dQ or dW.
• Properties, however, are point functions (i.e., they
depend on the state only, and not on how a system
reaches that state), and they have exact
differentials designated by the symbol d.
• A small change in volume, for example, is
represented by dV, and the total volume change
during a process between states 1 and 2 is
• That is, the volume change during process 1–2 is
always the volume at state 2 minus the volume at
state 1, regardless of the path followed.
• The total work done during process 1–2,
however, is

• That is, the total work is obtained by following

the process path and adding the differential
amounts of work (δW) done along the way.
• The integral of δW is not W2-W1 (i.e., the work
at state 2 minus work at state 1), which is
meaningless since work is not a property and
systems do not possess work at a state.
 Energy transfer by mass
• Energy can be transferred to or from a closed
system (a fixed mass) in two distinct forms:
heat and work.
• For control volumes, energy can also be
transferred by mass flow.
• When mass entering a control volume the
energy of control volume increases and when
mass leaves the energy of control volume
decreases.