CHAPTER ONE

CONCEPT OF STRESS/ INTERNAL ACTIONS AND

STRESSES

Points to be covered under this chapter are:-

 introduction:-concept of stress
 forces and stresses
 axial loading; normal stress
 shearing stress
 bearing stress in connections
 application to the analysis of simple structures
 stress on an oblique plane under axial loading
 ultimate and allowable stress: factor of safety
 CHAPTER 1: INTERNAL ACTIONS AND STRESSES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to provide the future engineer with the
means of analyzing and designing various machines and load bearing structures.
Both the analysis and the design of a given structure involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This first chapter is devoted to the concept of stresses/internal actions.
Mechanics of Materials (traditionally called Strength of Materials) is concerned with the analytical
determination of the strength, stiffness and stability characteristics of structures or structural
members.
Strength: the maximum load carrying capacity before breaking or rupture.
Stiffness: the ability to support loads without excessive deformation.
Stability: the ability to carry (compressive) loads without a sudden change in
configuration (or buckling).
The concepts of mechanics of materials are very useful in the design of many practical structures.
Mechanics of materials relies on:
 Fundamental laws of mechanics, in particular statics.
 Physical characteristics of the material of fabrication.
 Cont…
Information regarding the physical characteristics of materials is obtained from
experiments. Thus mechanics of materials is both an analytical and empirical science.
The relationship of mechanics of materials with other branches of mechanics is illustrated
using the diagram in Fig. 1-1.
Mechanics

Mechanics of solids Mechanics of fluids

Rigid-body mechanics Mechanics of deformable bodies

statics dynamics

Fig. 1-1. Branches of mechanics

 
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLEBODY

Since statics plays an important role in both the development and application of mechanics of materials, it
is very important to have a good grasp of its fundamentals. For this reason, we will now review some of
the main principles of statics that will be used throughout the text.

Loads:- A body can be subjected to both surface loads and body forces.

Surface loads that act on a small area of contact are reported by concentrated forces, while distributed
loadings act over a larger surface area of the body. When the loading is coplanar, as in Fig. 1–1a, then a
resultant force of a distributed loading is equal to the area under the distributed loading diagram, and this
resultant act through the geometric center or centroid of this area.
Support Reactions.
 1.3 forces /internal actions and stresses
1.3.1 Internal Actions--Method of Sections
 Investigation of forces internal to a structure (internal actions) is an important
step in mechanics of materials.
 After all external forces on a body have been found, the method of sections
may be applied to determine internal actions on any section of the body.
 The method of sections should be familiar from the study of internal forces in
trusses.
 The basic steps of the method of sections are (See Fig. 1.3-1)
 Free-body diagram of the body is drawn.
 All external actions are determined. For statically determinate problems,
equations of equilibrium will be sufficient.
 Imaginary section is passed at the location where internal actions are desired
separating the body in two parts.
 Internal actions at the section are determined by applying equilibrium equations
to either part of the original body. This is based on the fact that “If a certain body is
in equilibrium, then all parts of the body are also in equilibrium.”
 CONTI…

Fig. 1.3-1 Determination of internal actions

Internal actions can be viewed as the resultant of the numerous internal force
components distributed over the cut section of a body. As such, internal actions
can be generally represented by a resultant force-couple system at a certain
point, usually the centroid of the cross-section. It is usually convenient to
resolve the resultant into rectangular coordinates such that one of the axes is
perpendicular to the cut surface. In this manner, the components of the internal
actions can be identified in a physically meaningful manner.
Generally, we have six components of internal actions:
 three forces and
 three couples.
The internal forces components are referred to as axial force or shear force depending on
their action.
Axial forces act perpendicular to the cut surface;
shear forces act parallel to the surface. Similarly, the internal couple components may
be bending moments or torsion.
For two dimensional problems (i.e., the geometry and loading is on a single plane),
there are generally three components of internal actions: an axial force, a shear force
and a bending moment.
Examples on Internal Actions.
1.3.2 Stresses
internal forces acting on infinitesimal areas of a cut may be of varying magnitudes and
directions.
These internal forces are vectorial in nature and maintain in equilibrium the externally
applied forces.
In mechanics of materials it is particularly important to determine the intensity of these
forces on the various portions of the cut as the resistance to deformation (strength) and
capacity of material to resist forces (stiffness) depend on these intensities.
In general these intensities of forces acting on the infinitesimal area of the cut vary from
point to point, and in general, they are inclined with respect to the plane of the cut.

2.3-1
 It would be more physically meaningful to resolve the stress vector into
components perpendicular and parallel to the cut surface. The magnitude of the
component perpendicular to the surface is referred to as the axial or normal stress
(denoted by ) and that parallel to the surface is the shear stress (denoted by ).
Note that and are scalar quantities. (See Fig. 1.3-1)

2.3-1

Fig. 1.3-1 Normal and Shear Stresses

 The physical meaning of whether the normal stress is acting away or toward the cut
surface is distinct.
When the action of the normal stress is away from the surface, it is called tensile normal
stress.
Normal stress acting toward the cut surface is referred to as compressive normal stress.
Basic unit of stress is N/ also called the Pascal (Pa).
Commonly used units are kPa (kilo-pascals) and MPa (mega-pascals).
The state of stress at a point can be completely specified by the shear and normal stresses acting
on the faces of a cube element at the point. (See Fig. 1.3-2).

Fig. 1.3-2 General State of Stress at a Point

1.4 SIMPLE STRESSES
1.4.1 Axial Load--Normal Stresses
Consider a straight bar of constant cross-section loaded by two equal and opposite
forces at its ends (See Fig. 1.3-1).
A straight bar with constant cross-sectional area is referred to as a prismatic bar.

Fig. 1.4-1 Axially Loaded Prismatic Bar

 Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section, the normal stress
is given by:
1.4-1
where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar. The commonly employed sign convention is
that tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative.
The following conditions must be satisfied for Eq.(1.4-1) to be precisely applicable:
· Material must be homogeneous.
· The bar is prismatic.
· Axial load is applied through the centroid of the cross-section.
· The cross-section is sufficiently far from the ends where loads are applied.
· For compressive forces: the member is of such cross-section and support conditions so that
buckling does not occur.
1.4.2 Average Shear Stresses
Another situation that frequently arises in practice is shown in Fig. 1.4-2. In all cases the
forces are transmitted from one part of a body to the other by causing stresses in a plane
parallel to the applied force. To obtain stresses in such instances, cutting planes are
selected and free-body diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.4-2. The average shear stress is
then given as:
 = 1.4-2
where V is the shear force acting over the cut surface of area A . The force V carried by the cut section
depends on the particular arrangement of geometry and loading.

Fig. 1.4-2 Examples of Shear Stresses

NB: The actual distribution of shear stress is never uniform. So Eq.(1.4-2) should be
interpreted as an expression for the average shear stress.
 1.4.3 Average Bearing Stresses
Bearing stress is the compressive external pressure that exists on the surface of contact
between two structural components. It is similar to the internal normal stress defined
previously except for the facts that:
· Bearing stresses are external.
· Bearing stresses are always compressive.
The average bearing stress is given as the normal component of the contact force divided by
the contact area:
= 1.4-3
NB: Again note that Eq. (1.4-3) gives merely the average bearing stress and the actual
distribution of bearing stress is much more complicated.
 Examples on Simple Stresses.
1.5 APPLICATION TO THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURES

We are now in a position to determine the stresses in the members and connections of various
simple two-dimensional structures and, thus, to design such structures.

Example

The 20-mm-diameter rod BC has flat ends of 20×40-mm rectangular cross section, while boom
AB has a 30×50-mm rectangular cross section and is fitted with a clevis at end B. Both members
are connected at B by a pin from which the 30-kN load is suspended by means of a U-shaped
bracket. Boom AB is supported at A by a pin fitted into a double bracket, while rod BC is
connected at C to a single bracket. All pins are 25 mm in diameter.
 a. Determination of the Normal Stress in
Boom AB and Rod BC.
the force in rod BC is FBC =50 KN (tension) and
the area of its circular cross section is A =314 *;
the corresponding average normal stress is .
However, the flat parts of the rod are also under
tension and at the narrowest section, where a
hole is located, we have
A=(20mm) (40mm-25mm) =300*
The corresponding average value of the stress,
therefore, is
 
Note that this is an average value; close to the hole, the stress
will actually reach a much larger value. It is clear that, under
an increasing load, the rod will fail near one of the holes
rather than in its cylindrical portion; its design, therefore,
could be improved by increasing the width or the thickness
of the flat ends of the rod.
Turning now our attention to boom AB, the force in the
boom is FAB=40 KN (compression). Since the area of the
boom’s rectangular cross section is A=30mm*50
mm=1.5*10-3m2, the average value of the normal stress in the
main part of the rod, between pins A and B, is
Note that the sections of minimum area at A and B are not under
stress, since the boom is in compression, and, therefore, pushes on
the pins (instead of pulling on the pins as rod BC does)
b) Determination of the Shearing Stress in Various Connections.
determining the shearing stress in a connection such as a bolt, pin,
or rivet. Thus, in the case of pin the 50-kN force exerted by member
BC on the pin, and the equal and opposite force exerted by the
bracket. P=50KN. Since the cross-sectional area of the pin is
2
 25 mm 
A r 2
   491 10 6 m 2
 2 
we find that the average value of the shearing stress in the
pin at C is
P 50  103 N
 C , ave    6 2
 102 MPa
A 491 10 m
Considering now the pin at A we note that it is in double shear.
Drawing the free-body diagrams of the pin and of the portion of pin
located between the planes DD' and EE' where shearing stresses
occur, we conclude that P=20KN and that
P 20 kN
 A, ave    6 2
 40.7 MPa
A 491 10 m
Considering the pin at B , the pin may be divided into five portions which are acted upon by
forces exerted by the boom, rod, and bracket. Considering successively the portions DE and
DG , we conclude that the shear in section E is PE=15KN, while the shear in section G is

PG=25KN. Since the loading of the pin is symmetric, we conclude that the maximum value of

the shear in pin B is PG=25KN, and that the largest shearing stresses occur in sections G and
PG 25 kN
 B , ave    6 2
 50.9 MPa
H, where A 491 10 m
c. Determination of the Bearing Stresses.

To determine the nominal bearing stress at A in member AB, we have t

=30 mm and d =25 mm. Recalling that P =FAB=40KN, we have
P 40 kN
b    53.3 MPa
td  30 mm  25 mm 
To obtain the bearing stress in the bracket at A, we use t=2(25 mm)
=50 mm and d=25 mm:

P 40 kN
b    32.0 MPa
td  50 mm  25 mm 
The bearing stresses at B in member AB, at B and C in member BC, and
in the bracket at C are found in a similar way.
 1.6 STRESS IN TWO FORCE MEMBERS
• Axial forces on a two force member
result in only normal stresses on a plane
cut perpendicular to the member axis.
• Transverse forces on bolts and pins result
in only shear stresses on the plane
perpendicular to bolt or pin axis.
• Will show that either axial or transverse
forces may produce both normal and shear
stresses with respect to a plane other than
one cut perpendicular to the member axis.

Axial forces and Transverse forces.

 Consider the two-force member, which is subjected to axial forces P and
P. If we pass a section forming an angle with a normal plane and draw
the free-body diagram of the portion of member located to the left of
that section , we find from the equilibrium conditions of the free body
that the distributed forces acting on the section must be equivalent to the
force P.  
Resolving P into components F and V respectively normal and
tangential to the section
 
,
 
The average values of the corresponding normal and shearing
stresses are obtained by dividing, respectively, F and V by the area
of the section:
 
&
 
Substituting for F and V) ,, or where denotes the area of a section
perpendicular to the axis of the member, we Obtain

&

Or

&
MAXIMUM STRESSES
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos2   sin  cos
A0 A0
• The maximum normal stress occurs when the
reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,  
P
the normal stress is maximum when =0
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45  
A0 2 A0
 1.7 DESIGN OF MEMBERS UNDER SIMPLE STRESSES
In engineering applications the determination of stresses is seldom an end in itself. Rather the
knowledge of stresses is used by the engineer to assist in the performance of the following
major parts.
 The analysis of existing or proposed structures in order to predict their behavior under
specified loading conditions.
 The design of new structures that will safely and economically perform a specified
function.
In order to perform either of the above tasks, we must know how the material to be used
acts under known conditions. For a given material this is determined by performing
specific tests on prepared samples of the material. From this type of tests the stress at
which the material will rupture or break, called ultimate strengths, are determined. The
ultimate strengths may be with respect to axial loading or shear loading. The respective
ultimate loads are called:
 Ultimate strength in tension ( )
 Ultimate strength in shear ()
 A structural member must be designed so that the actual stress is
considerable smaller than the ultimate strengths.
 The actual stress to which the member may be subjected, known as the
allowable stress, is obtained by dividing the ultimate strength by a factor of
safety (FS).
 The allowable stresses with respect to axial , shear and bearing
loading are thus obtained from:

1.5-1

The factor of safety is pure number always greater than 1 which takes
into account
uncertainties arising due to a number of reasons.
 Selection of an Appropriate Factor of Safety
 The choice of the factor of safety that is appropriate for a given design application
requires engineering judgment based on many considerations, such as the following:
1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member
under consideration.
The composition, strength, and dimensions of the member are all subject to small
variations during manufacture. In addition, material properties may be altered and
residual stresses introduced through heating or deformation that may occur during
manufacture, storage, transportation, or construction.
2. The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of
the structure or machine.
For most materials the ultimate stress decreases as the number of load applications is
increased. This phenomenon is known as fatigue and, if ignored, may result in
sudden failure (see Sec. 2.7).
3. The type of loadings that are planned for in the design, or that may occur in the future.
changes in usage may introduce changes in the actual loading. Larger factors of safety are
also required for dynamic, cyclic, or impulsive loadings.
4. The type of failure that may occur.
Brittle materials fail suddenly, usually with no prior indication that collapse is imminent. On
the other hand, ductile materials normally undergo a substantial deformation called yielding
before failing, thus providing a warning that overloading exists.
However, most buckling or stability failures are sudden, whether the material is brittle or not.
When the possibility of sudden failure exists, a larger factor of safety should be used than
when failure is preceded by obvious warning signs.
5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis.
All design methods are based on certain simplifying assumptions which
result in calculated stresses being approximations of actual stresses.
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance
or because of unpreventable natural causes.
A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where conditions such as
corrosion and decay are difficult to control or even to discover.
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole
structure.
Bracing and secondary members may in many cases be designed with a
factor of safety lower than that used for primary members.
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at
B of the pipe shown in Fig. End A is subjected to a vertical force of 50
N, a horizontal force of 30 N, and a couple moment of 70 N.m.
Neglect the pipe’s mass.
SOLUTION
The problem can be solved by considering segment AB, so we do not
need to calculate the support reactions at C.
Free-Body Diagram.
the x, y, z axes are established at B. The resultant force and moment
components at the section are assumed to act in the positive coordinate
direction and to pass through the centroid of the cross-sectional area at
B.
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as
shown in Fig. If AB has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a
diameter of 8 mm, determine the average normal stress in
each rod.
SOLUTION
Internal Loading. We must first determine the axial force
in each rod.
A free-body diagram of the lamp is shown. Applying the
equations of force equilibrium,
Two forces are applied to the bracket BCD as shown.
(a) Knowing that the control rod AB is to be made of a steel
having an ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa,
determine the diameter of the rod for which the factor of
safety with respect to failure will be 3.3. (b) The pin at C is
to be made of a steel having an ultimate shearing stress of
350 MPa. Determine the diameter of the pin C for which the
factor of safety with respect to shear will also be 3.3.
(c) Determine the required thickness of the bracket supports
at C knowing that the allowable bearing stress of the steel
used is 300 MPa.
Determine the average shear stress in the
20-mm-diameter pin at A and the 30-
mm-diameter pin at B that support the
beam in Fig. given.
The plastic block is subjected to an axial compressive
force of 600 N. Assuming that the caps at the top and
bottom distribute the load uniformly throughout the
block, determine the average normal and average
shear stress acting along section a–a.