CHAPTER 4

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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Contents
• Introduction

• Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

• First Law and Closed Systems

• Specific heat, Internal energy and Enthalpy

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• So far, we have considered various forms of energy such as
heat Q, work W, and total energy E individually, and no
attempt is made to relate them to each other during a
process.
• first law of thermodynamics also known as the conservation
of energy principle, provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various forms of energy and energy
interactions.
• first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
• A major consequence of the first law is the existence and the
definition of the property total energy E.
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familiar examples-the conservation of energy relation
The work (electrical)
The increase in the energy of a potato done on an adiabatic
in an oven is equal to the amount of system is equal to the
heat transferred to it. increase in the energy
of the system.

In the absence of any work

interactions, the energy change of a
system is equal to the net heat
transfer.
The work (shaft) done on
an adiabatic system is
equal to the increase in
the energy of the 4system.
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system
during that process. That is,

• This relation is often referred to as the energy balance and is

applicable to any kind of system undergoing any kind of process.

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• The determination of the energy change of a system during a process
involves the evaluation of the energy of the system at the beginning
and at the end of the process, and taking their difference. That is,

• In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects (i.e.,

for simple compressible systems), the change in the total energy of a
system during a process is the sum of the changes in its internal,
kinetic, and potential energies and can be expressed as

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• for stationary systems, the changes in kinetic and potential energies
are zero and the total energy change relation reduces to:

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Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: heat,
work, and mass flow.
1. Heat Transfer, Q Heat transfer to a system (heat gain) increases the
energy of the molecules and thus the internal energy of the system,
and heat transfer from a system (heat loss) decreases it since the
energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the
molecules of the system.
2. Work Transfer, (W) Work transfer to a system (i.e., work
done on a system) increases the energy of the system, and
work transfer from a system (i.e., work done by the system)
decreases .

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3. Mass Flow, (m) When mass enters a system, the energy of the
system increases because mass carries energy with it (in fact,
mass is energy). Likewise, when some mass leaves the system,
the energy contained within the system decreases .

• the energy balance can be written more explicitly as:

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FIRST LAW AND CLOSED SYSTEMS
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
• The work associated with a moving boundary is called boundary
work.
• the expansion and compression work is often called moving
boundary work, or simply boundary work.
• Consider the gas enclosed in the piston–cylinder device shown.

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• Here we analyze the moving boundary work for a quasi-equilibrium
process, a process during which the system remains nearly in
equilibrium at all times.
• The initial pressure of the gas is P, the total volume is V, and the cross
sectional area of the piston is A.
• If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-equilibrium
manner, the differential work done during this process is

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• The total boundary work done during the entire process as the piston
moves is obtained by adding all the differential works from the initial
state to the final state:

• On above diagram, the differential area dA is equal to

P dV, which is the differential work.
• The total area A under the process curve 1–2 is obtained by adding
these differential areas:

• the area under the process curve on a P-V diagram is equal, in

magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed system.

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• For the closed system where the mass never crosses the system
boundary, then the energy balance is

Closed system undergoing a cycle

• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states are
identical, and thus;

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• If the total energy is a combination of internal energy, kinetic energy
and potential energy

• For negligible changes in kinetic and potential energy

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Internal energy and Enthalpy
Internal energy
• The internal energy includes some complex forms of energy show up
due to translation, rotation and vibration of molecules.
• It is designated by U and it is extensive property.
• Or per unit mass as, specific internal energy,
• If we take two phase as liquid and vapor at a given saturation
pressure or temperature

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enthalpy
• It is another extensive property which has a unit of energy and it is
denoted by H.
• the enthalpy is a convenient grouping of the internal energy,
pressure, and volume and is given by

• The enthalpy per unit mass is,

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Specific Heat
• It defined as; the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree.
• It is an intensive property of a substance that will enable us to
compare the energy storage capability of various substances.

• In thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats:

specific heat at constant volume and specific heat at constant
pressure.
• The specific heat at constant volume can be viewed as the energy
required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
one degree as the volume is maintained constant.

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• Here the boundary work is zero because the volume is constant.
• From first law

• The specific heat at constant pressure Cp can be viewed as the

energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a
substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.
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First Law and the Control Volume
• In addition to heat and work control volume interacts with its
surrounding by mass crossing its boundary.
• Therefore mass balance and energy balance for open or control
volume system can be applied.

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Conservation of Mass Principle (Mass balance)
• The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be
expressed as:
“The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time
interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total
mass within the control volume during ∆t.” That is,

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Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
• During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained
within a control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
• Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total
amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of
mass leaving it.

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FLOW WORK AND THE ENERGY OF A FLOWING FLUID
• Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across their
boundaries,
• and some work is required to push the mass into or out of the control
volume.
• This work is known as the flow work, or flow energy.

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Consider a fluid element of volume V.

• If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid

element is A, the force applied on the fluid element by the imaginary
piston is

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• To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this force
must act through a distance L.
• Thus, the work done in pushing the fluid element across the
boundary (i.e., the flow work) is

• The flow work per unit mass is:

Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid

• The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional
form of energy—the flow energy, Pv.
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• Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis (denoted
by 𝜃) becomes

• Noting that 𝜃 is total energy per unit mass, the total energy of a
flowing fluid of mass m is simply m𝜃.

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ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY-FLOW SYSTEMS
steady-flow process
• Process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
• That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the
control volume, but at any point, they remain constant during the
entire process. (Remember, steady means no change with time.)

steady-flow devices
• turbines, compressors, and nozzles.

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• During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control
volume remains constant (ECV = constant), and thus the change in the
total energy of the control volume is zero (∆ECV = 0).
• Therefore, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all
forms (by heat, work, and mass) must be equal to the amount of
energy leaving it.
• rate form of the general energy balance reduces for a steady-flow
process to

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• solving a problem that involves an unknown heat or work interaction
(direction), we need to assume a direction for the heat or work
interactions.
• In such cases, it is common practice to assume heat to be transferred into
the system (heat input) at a rate of Q, and work produced by the system
(work output) at a rate of W , and then solve the problem.
• The first-law or energy balance relation in that case for a general steady-
flow system becomes

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• For single-stream (one inlet and one outlet) devices, the steady-flow
energy balance equation becomes

• on a unit-mass basis as

• When the fluid experiences negligible changes in its kinetic and

potential energies (that is, ∆ke = 0, ∆pe = 0), the energy balance
equation is reduced further to

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SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Nozzles and Diffusers
• Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
• A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the
expense of pressure.
• A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing
it down.

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Turbines
• In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that
drives the electric generator is the turbine.
• As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the
blades, which are attached to the shaft.
• As a result, the shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work.

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Compressors
• Compressors, as well as fans, are devices used to increase the
pressure of a fluid.
• Work is supplied to these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft.

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 Pumps
• The work required when pumping an incompressible liquid in an adiabatic
steady-state, steady-flow process is given by

• The enthalpy difference can be written as

• The pumping process for an incompressible liquid is essentially isothermal,

and the internal energy change is approximately zero. Since v2 = v1 = v the
work input to the pump becomes

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Examples –closed systems

1.
A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapor at 300kPa is heated at
constant pressure until the temperature reaches 200°C.
Calculate the work done by the steam during this process.

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2.
A piston–cylinder device contains steam initially at 1MPa, 450°C, and 2.5 m3.
Steam is allowed to cool at constant pressure until it first starts condensing. Show
the process on a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines and determine (a)
the mass of the steam, (b) the final temperature, and (c) the amount of heat
transfer.

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Examples-open systems
1.
Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m3 and 40 m/s and leaves at 0.762
kg/m3 and 180 m/s. If the inlet area of the nozzle is 90 cm2, determine
(a) the mass flow rate through the nozzle, and (b) the exit area of the
nozzle.

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2.
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300 kPa, 200°C, and 30 m/s
and leaves at 100 kPa and 180 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 80
cm2. Determine (a) the mass flow rate through the nozzle, (b) the exit
temperature of the air, and (c) the exit area of the nozzle.

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3.
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of
the steam are 10MPa, 450°C, and 80 m/s, and the exit conditions are
10kPa, 92 percent quality, and 50 m/s. The mass flow rate of the steam is
12 kg/s. Determine (a) the change in kinetic energy, (b) the power output,
and (c) the turbine inlet area.

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4.
A hot-water stream at 80°C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flow
rate of 0.5 kg/s where it is mixed with a stream of cold water at 20°C. If
it is desired that the mixture leave the chamber at 42°C, determine the
mass flow rate of the cold-water stream. Assume all the streams are at a
pressure of 250kPa.

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Additional examples

Read from the text book examples

Under chapter 4
Under chapter 5

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