Applied Thermodynamics

ME322 (03 credit hours)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Instructor’s email: wasaeem.iqbal@umt.edu.pk

All Electronic Material is on Moodle

WEEK 01: Unit 01

Introduction to Semiconductor
Outline
• Thermodynamics and Energy
▫ Application Areas of Thermodynamics
• Importance of Dimensions and Units
▫ Some SI and English Units
▫ Dimensional Homogeneity
▫ Unity Conversion Ratios
• Systems and Control Volumes
Thermodynamics
• Science of Energy
• What is Energy?
▫ Ability to cause change
• Thermodynamics:
▫ Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power)
or “Turn heat into power”
▫ Now includes all aspects of energy and energy
transformations
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.

• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme

(heat) and dynamis (power).

• Conservation of energy principle: During an interaction,

energy can change from one form to another but the total amount
of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

• The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of the

conservation of energy principle.

• The first law asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can
only change forms (the first law).
Laws of Energy
• Conservation of Energy Principle
▫ Energy can change from one form to another but
total amount remains constant
• First Law of Thermodynamics
▫ Can neither create nor destroy energy
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
▫ Energy has quality as well as quantity
History
• Early work in 1850’s by
▫ William Rankine
▫ Rudolph Clausius
▫ Lord Kelvin (William Thompson)
Thermodynamics
• Classical thermodynamics
▫ Macroscopic view
▫ Looks at results of actions at overall level
• Statistical thermodynamics
▫ Microscopic view
▫ Looks at actions at individual particle level

Most engineering work at macroscopic level.

Illustration of microscopic description

A collection of atoms within a container,

each with a unique velocity.
1 2
Energy of each atom = e mV
2
Number of atoms = N
N 2 N
m
Total Energy = eN
2

V

i1
ke
1
The macroscopic description
The energy in both cases
is the same, E. In the
macroscopic description,
atomistic concepts are
disregarded.
How we describe the
system chosen for study
requires careful selection of
properties that are based
on observable, measurable
quantities.
Units
• Base units
▫ Mass, m (or force), length, L, time, t, temperature,
T
• Derived units
▫ Velocity, V, energy, E, volume, v
Units
• Systems
▫ SI, international
 Mass based
 Decimal system
▫ English (US Customary System, USCS)
 Force based (gravitational)
 Unique relationships abound
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
Key Units
Key Units
• Newton (N): force required to accelerate a mass
of one kg at a rate of one meter/second2
• Pound-force (lbf): force required to accelerate a
mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of one
foot/second2
• Weight is a force, mass is not weight
Key Units
• Specific weight γ: weight per unit volume or γ=
ρg where ρ is density and g is the gravitational
constant.
• Work (energy): force times distance, newton-
meter (N·m) called a joule (J)
• Energy is English system is BTU: energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of
water at 68°F by 1°F.
▫ 1BTU = 1.0551 kJ
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions
and are called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
 Dimensional homogeneity
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by
combinations of primary units.

Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity

conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are

unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be
inserted conveniently into any calculation to properly convert
units.
Dimensional Homogeneity
• In engineering, all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous, which means
that every term in an equation must have the same unit.
• Example: 1 If a body undergoes some work in the form of potential and kinetic
energy, then the total work done can be calculated as a some of both energies.
• W = mgh + ½ mv^2
• Nm =(kg)(m/s^2)(m)) + (kg)(m/s)(m/s)
• Nm =(N)(m) + (N)(m)
• L.H.S=R.H.S
• If at any point during analysis, we find ourselves adding/ subtracting two terms
with different units, it means we have made an error at an earlier stage. So
checking dimensions serves as a valuable tool to spot errors.

• Units can be used to check formulas; sometimes they can even be used to derive
formulas. This is illustrated in the next example.
Dimensional Homogeneity Cont’d
• Example: A tank is filled with oil whose density is 850kg/m^3. If volume of the tank is 2m^3,
determine the amount of mass in the tank.
• Sol:
• Suppose we forget the formula that relates mass to volume and density. However, we
know that mass has unit of kg. That is, whatever calculations we do, we should end up with
units of kg. Putting the given information into perspective, we have

• density = 850 kg/m^3 volume= 2 m^3

• It is clear that we can eliminate m^3 and end up with unit of kg by multiplying these two
quantities. Therefore, the formula we are looking forward is:
• mass = density x volume
• = (850 kg/m^3)(2 m^3)
• = 1700 kg.
• Discussion: Note that this approach may not work for more complicated formulas.
Non-dimensional constants also may be present in the formulas, and these cannot be
derived from unit considerations alone.
Unity Conversion Ratios
• All Non Primary (Secondary) units can be formed by combinations of Primary
units.

• Force units, for example, can be expressed as:

▫N=kg m/s

• They can also be expressed more conveniently as Unity-Conversion- Ratios.

• N/(kg. m/s^2) = 1

• Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unit less, and thus such
ratios can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to properly convert units.
1.3 Systems & Control Volumes
• System:
• System is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surrounding:
• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• Boundary:
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is
called the boundary. Boundary of a system can be
• fixed or movable. Note that boundary is the contact surface shared by
• both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary
has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any
volume in space.

• These things are depicted in the give figure.

1.3 Systems & Control Volumes Cont’d
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed
mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

• Closed System (Control Mass):

• consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. But
energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed. See figure on top right side of this slide.
• If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system
is called an isolated system.
1.3 Systems & Control Volumes Cont’d
• Open System (Control Volume):
• It is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is
best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both
mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
• The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be
real or imaginary.
WEEK 01: Unit 02

Introduction to Semiconductor
Outline
• Properties of a System
▫ Continuum
• Density and Specific Gravity
• State and Equilibrium
▫ The State Postulate
• Processes and Cycles
▫ The Steady-Flow Process
Properties of a System
Properties of a System
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are Pressure P,
Temperature T, Volume V and Mass M.

• Properties are considered to be either Intensive or Extensive.

• Intensive Properties:
• that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.

• Extensive Properties:
• Whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, and
total momentum are some examples of extensive properties.

• Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with

• mass m being a major exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive
• properties (with pressure P and temperature T being the obvious exceptions).
• Extensive properties per unit mass are called Specific Properties. Some
• examples of specific properties are specific volume (v = V/m) and specific energy (e =
E/m).
Density and Specific Gravity
Density
• Density: mass per unit volume
▫ ρ = m/V (kg/m3) or lb/ft3(English)
• At any instant the density (r ) at a point is
defined as m
  lim  
V V '  V 
Density
• The density is an intensive property so it can
vary from point to point. So the mass in a
volume V can be calculate by integration
 Density
• The density of fluid decrease as it is
heated; thus, hot fluids are lighter than
cool fluids.

Gases Water

Volume r
r Gases r
Liquids Liquids

P T P T
Specific Volume
• Specific Volume: volume per unit mass and is
the reciprocal of density:
▫ V = V/m = 1/ρ (m3/kg)
• Specific volume is an intensive property that
may vary from point to point.
• SI units: (m3/kg), English units: (ft3/lb).
Specific Gravity
• Specific Gravity: ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of a standard substance
at a give temperature.
▫ SG = ρ/ρwater (also called relative density)
• Specific gravity: the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some standard
substance at specified temperature (usually
water at 4 oC)
Density and Specific Gravity
Specific Weight
• The weight of a unit volume of a substance is
called specific weight
• γs = ρg (N/m3)
State and Equilibrium

• The State Postulate

State
• A state is defined as a condition of a substance
that can be described by certain observable
macroscopic properties. (T, P, ,  etc.) at a
certain condition.
• All other properties can be determined in terms
of these few.
• A system is said to be at a state when all the
properties in the system can be measured or
calculated and the system is not undergoing a
change.
Change of State
• Whenever one or more of the properties of a system
change, we say that a change in state has occurred.
Change of State

• Change of state due to an infinitesimal deviations

from thermodynamic equilibrium can be precisely
identified.
Economics of Change of State
• Every change of state of a system consumes resource
(Energy).
• Detail record of a change of state is essential to
efficiently use the resource.
• Keeping a record of change of state of a system is called
as detailing the process in thermodynamics.
Equilibrium
• When a system is isolated, it does not interact with
its surroundings; however, its state can change as a
consequence of spontaneous events occurring
internally as its intensive properties such as
temperature and pressure tend toward uniform
values. When all such changes cease, the system is
at an equilibrium state.
• Equilibrium implies a state of balance, no
unbalanced driving forces in the system
• Equilibrium states play important roles in
thermodynamic analysis.
Equilibrium
• Every system in this universe spontaneously
move towards equilibrium.
Equilibrium
• A system is said to be in thermodynamic
equilibrium if it maintains thermal, mechanical,
phase, and chemical equilibrium.
• Major types of Equilibrium:
▫ Thermal
▫ Mechanical
▫ Phase
▫ Chemical
Thermal Equilibrium
• Thermal equilibrium means that there is no
temperature differential through the system.
20 °C 30 °C 32 °C 32 °C

30 °C
32 °C

35 °C 40 °C
32 °C 32 °C

No thermal equilibrium Thermal equilibrium

Mechanical Equilibrium
• Mechanical equilibrium means that there is no
change in pressure in the system.
20 pa 20 pa When Two bodies
20 pa have equality of
20 pa 20 pa pressure with a
(a) Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium) third body, they in
turn have equality
of pressure with
20 pa each other.
90 pa

20 pa
(b) fast compression (non quasi-equilibrium)
Chemical Equilibrium
• Chemical equilibrium means that the chemical
composition of the system does not change with
time
• When Two bodies have equality of
concentration with a third body, they in
turn have equality of concentration with
each other.
Phase Equilibrium
• Phase equilibrium means that the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays
there.
Vacuum Vapor, P > 0 Vapor, P = Pv
t= 0, P = 0

Water Water Water

At t = 0 After some time After long time

State Postulate
• The number of properties required to fix the state
of a system is given by the state postulate:
▫ The state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible system: If a system
involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects.(the only
energy transfer by work is by volume change).
• Once the state of a system is determined all other
properties are known
State Postulate
• Two properties are considered
to be independent if one
property is varied while the
other one is constant.
• Temperature and specific
volume are good examples.
• Temperature and pressure are
not always independent of each
The state of nitrogen
other. They become dependent is fixed by two
during phase change processes. independent,
intensive properties.
Process and Cycle

• Steady-Flow Process
Process
►When any of the properties of a system changes,
the state changes, and the system is said to have
undergone a process.
►Example: Since V2 > V1, at least one property value
changed, and the gas has undergone a process from
State 1 to State 2.
State 1: p1, V1, T1, … State 2: p2, V2, T2, …

Gas Gas
Path
• The series of states through which a system
passes during a process is called a path of the
process

• To describe a process
completely need:
Initial and final states
Path it follows
Interactions with surroundings
Quasi- Processes
• When a process moves so slowly that all
parts of the system change at the same
rate and are in equilibrium with all other
parts of the system, the process is called
quasi-static or a quasi-equilibrium
process
State 2 Process path
• It allows the system to adjust itself P
Intermediate
internally so that properties in one part of states
the system do not change any faster than
those at other parts.
State 1
• A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized 20
process and does not occur in nature.
V
▫ Serve as a standard to be compared to
• Quasi-equilibrium work-producing 20 pa 20 pa
devices deliver the maximum work. 20 pa
20 pa 20 pa

(a) Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium)

 Process Diagram
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic
properties as coordinates are
very useful in visualizing the
processes.
• Some common properties
that are used as coordinates
are temperature T, pressure
P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).
• In some processes any one
thermodynamic property may be
held constant.
Non-Quasi-Equilibrium process
• Compression process
is fast and thus
equilibrium can not State 2

be attained. P
Non-equilibruim
90
• Intermediate states process
?
can not be determined 20
State 1
and the process path V
can not be defined. 20 pa
Instead we represent 90 pa

it as dashed line. 20 pa
(b) Fast compression (non quasi-
equilibrium)
Thermodynamic Cycle
• A cycle is a process (series of connected processes) with identical end states.
• When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of different
changes of state or processes and finally returns to its initial state, the
system has undergone a cycle.
• At the conclusion of a cycle, all the properties have the same value they had
at the beginning.

Cyclic Working of Left Ventricle

Engineering Cycles
• Carnot Cycle
• Lenoir Cycle
• Otto Cycle
• Sterling Cycle
• Atkinson Cycle
• Diesel Cycle
• Brayton cycle
• Rankine Cycle
• Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
Steady-Flow Process
• Steady: no change with time
• Uniform: no change with location over a specific
region
• Opposite of steady: unsteady or transient
• In this process a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily
Steady-Flow Process

• A large number of engineering

devices operate for long
periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow
devices.

During a steady-flow process, fluid

properties within the control volume
may change with position but not with
time.
Steady-Flow Process
Under steady-flow
conditions, the mass
and energy contents
of a control volume
remain constant

Steady-flow conditions
can be closely
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and
approximated by energy contents of a control volume remain
devices that are constant.

intended for
Example: A steam power cycle.

Combustion
Products
Steam
Turbine
Mechanical Energy
Fuel to Generator

Air
Heat
Pump
Exchanger

System
SystemBoundary
Boundary
for
forThermodynamic
Thermodynamic
Cooling Water Analysis
Analysis
Thank you