ME 331

Θερμοδυναμική
Spring 2022
W,F 12-1:15 pm Wilkinson 132
Instructor: Professor Piotr E. Marszalek
Office -3387 CIEMAS, Telephone 919 660 5381
Office hours W 1:30-3 pm; pemar@duke.edu;

Recitation, Thursday: 3:30-4:45pm; W132

TA: Ms. Judith Dominguez; judith.dominguez @duke.edu;

Laboratory: Hudson Hall 154

Lab managers: Mr. Patrick Mc Guire, pm56@duke.edu;
Mr. Eric Stach eric.stach@duke.edu
 Textbook: M.J. Moran & H. N. Shapiro
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
9th Edition, J. Wiley & Sons
 COURSE OBJECTIVES:
• Master fundamentals of classical thermodynamics

• Develop analytic and problem solving skills

•Gain competence in the use of thermodynamics as

a basic engineering science with widespread
applications in fluid flow, heat transfer, thermal
processes, power generation and related topics.
Students will demonstrate their ability to:

 1. Determine the heat transfer and work with

liquids, vapors and ideal gases using the first law
of thermodynamics.

2. Determine the efficiency of machines and the

thermal efficiency of both gas and vapor power
cycles.

3. Use the second law of thermodynamics to

determine thermal efficiency limitations.
Students will demonstrate their ability to:

4. Use thermodynamic principles to evaluate

the performance of vapor compression
refrigeration and heat pump systems and cycles
5. Apply the first law of thermodynamics to
the combustion of hydrocarbons

6. Use psychrometric properties to evaluate

the parameters in air-vapor processes
for heating, cooling, humidifying and
dehumidifying.
 Lectures cover the reading assignments. Problems are due at the next
class period. Problems will be reviewed in class and at recitations.
  GRADES:
Three “midterm” exams 45%
Final Examination 20%
AVERAGE OF HW ASSIGNEMENTS 19 %
4 laboratory reports 16 %
  Late assignments will not be accepted.  Doing assignments in a timely
manner is extremely important for learning the newly covered material
and making sure that you understand it thoroughly.
 
Office hours: W 3:-4:pm
  
Final Examination:
Friday, April 29, 9 am-12 pm
Wilkinson 132
“…Classical thermodynamics……
is the only physical theory of universal content
which I am convinced that, within the
framework of the applicability
of its basic concepts,
it will never be overthrown”

Albert Einstein
 Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld
(1868-1951)
German theoretical physicist

“Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time

you go through it, you don't understand it at all.
The second time you go through it, you think you
understand it, except for one or two small points.
The third time you go through it, you know you
don't understand it, but by that time you are so
used to it, it doesn't bother you any more.”
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=SPg7hOxFItI

Alabama Miller Power Plant 2900 MW

48 000 tons of coal/24 hours

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ftl-
WM6wms
 ~2010

~2014
Current U.S. Electricity
Generation by Source
…………………………………………………………….

Coal 37.4%
Natural gas 30.6%
Nuclear 19.0%
Hydroelectric 6.7%
Other renewablesa 5.4%
Petroleum (oil) 0.6%
Others 0.3%
a
Wind, solar, geothermal, others
 Learning Outcomes
►Demonstrate understanding of several
fundamental concepts used throughout this
book . . . Including closed system, control
volume, boundary and surroundings, property,
state, process, the distinction between
extensive and intensive properties, and
equilibrium.
 Learning Outcomes, cont.
►Apply SI and English Engineering units,
including units for specific volume, pressure,
and temperature.
►Work with the Kelvin, Rankine, Celsius, and
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
►Apply the problem-solving methodology used
in this book.
 Defining Systems
►System: whatever we want to study.
►Surroundings: everything external to the
system.
►Boundary: distinguishes system from its
surroundings.
Boundary

System Surroundings
 Closed System

►A system that always contains

the same matter.
►No transfer of mass across its
boundary can occur.
►Isolated system: special type of
closed system that does not
interact in any way with its
surroundings.
 Control Volume
►A given region of space through which mass flows.
►Mass may cross the boundary of a control volume.
 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views
►Systems can be described from the macroscopic and microscopic
points of view.
►The microscopic approach aims to characterize by statistical
means the average behavior of the particles making up a system and
use this information to describe the overall behavior of the system.
►The macroscopic approach describes system behavior in terms of
the gross effects of the particles making up the system – specifically,
effects that can be measured by instruments such a pressure gages
and thermometers.
►Engineering thermodynamics predominately uses the
macroscopic approach.
 Property
►A macroscopic characteristic of a system to
which a numerical value can be assigned at a
given time without knowledge of the previous
behavior of the system.
►For the system shown, examples include:
►Mass
►Volume
►Energy Gas
►Pressure
►Temperature
 State
►The condition of a system as described by its
properties.
►Example: The state of the system shown is described
by p, V, T,….
►The state often can be specified by providing the
values of a subset of its properties. All other properties
can be determined in terms of these few.
State: p, V, T, …

Gas
 Process
►A transformation from one state to another.
►When any of the properties of a system changes, the
state changes, and the system is said to have
undergone a process.
►Example: Since V2 > V1, at least one property value
changed, and the gas has undergone a process from
State 1 to State 2.
State 1: p1, V1, T1, … State 2: p2, V2, T2, …

Gas Gas
 Extensive Property
►Depends on the size or extent of a system.
►Examples: mass, volume, energy.
►Its value for an overall system is the sum of its values
for the parts into which the system is divided.

►Its value may vary with time but not position.

 Intensive Property
►Independent of the size or extent of a system.
►Examples: pressure, temperature.
►Its value is not additive as for extensive properties.
►May vary from place to place within the system at
any moment – function of both position and time.
 Equilibrium
►When a system is isolated, it does not interact with its
surroundings; however, its state can change as a
consequence of spontaneous events occurring internally
as its intensive properties such as temperature and
pressure tend toward uniform values. When all such
changes cease, the system is at an equilibrium state.
►Equilibrium states and processes from one equilibrium
state to another equilibrium state play important roles in
thermodynamic analysis.
 Units
►A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by
comparison with which any other quantity of the
same kind is measured (e.g., meter, kilometers,
feet, and miles are all units of length).
►Two systems of units:
►SI (Système International d’Unités)
►English Engineering units.
 Units

In these unit systems, mass, length, and time are base units and force
has a unit derived from them using,
F = ma (Eq. 1.1)
SI: 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) = 1 kg∙m/s2 (Eq. 1.2)
English:
1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2) = 32.1740 lb∙ft/s2 (Eq. 1.5)
 Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►From a macroscopic perspective, description of
matter is simplified by considering it to be
distributed continuously throughout a region.
►When substances are treated as continua, it is
possible to speak of their intensive thermodynamic
properties “at a point.”
►At any instant the density (r ) at a point is defined
as
m
  lim   (Eq. 1.6)
V V '  V 

where V ' is the smallest volume for which a definite value

of the ratio exists.
 Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)

►Density is mass per unit volume.

►Density is an intensive property that may
vary from point to point.
►SI units are (kg/m3).
►English units are (lb/ft3).
 Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►Specific volume is the reciprocal of density:
v = 1/r .
►Specific volume is volume per unit mass.
►Specific volume is an intensive property that
may vary from point to point.
►SI units are (m3/kg).
►English units are (ft3/lb).
Specific volume is usually preferred for
thermodynamic analysis when working with gases
that typically have small density values.
 Molar basis

n: kmol (kilomole) lbmol (poundmole)

Avogadro number 6.02214179(30)×1023 mol-1

n=m/M M: kg/kmol or lb/lbmol

M = 18 kg/kmol 18 lb/lbmol
H20

v = V/n = (V/m)M = vM
 Pressure (p)
►Consider a small area A passing through a point in a
fluid at rest.
►The fluid on one side of the area exerts a compressive
force that is normal to the area, Fnormal. An equal but
oppositely directed force is exerted on the area by the
fluid on the other side.
►The pressure (p) at the specified point is defined as the
limit
F 
p  lim  normal  (Eq. 1.10)
A A '  A 

where A' is the area at the “point” in the same limiting sense as
used in the definition of density.
 Pressure Units
►SI unit of pressure is the pascal:
1 pascal = 1 N/m2
►Multiples of the pascal are frequently used:
►1 kPa = 103 N/m2
►1 bar = 105 N/m2
►1 MPa = 106 N/m2
►English units for pressure are:
►pounds force per square foot, lbf/ft2
►pounds force per square inch, lbf/in.2
 Absolute Pressure
►Absolute pressure: Pressure with respect to the
zero pressure of a complete vacuum.
►Absolute pressure must be used in
thermodynamic relations.
►Pressure-measuring devices often indicate the
difference between the absolute pressure of a
system and the absolute pressure of the atmosphere
outside the measuring device.
Pgas > Patm Pgas < Patm

gauge

Lvac
fig_01_07
 Gage and Vacuum Pressure
►When system pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure, the term gage
pressure is used.
p(gage) = p(absolute) – patm(absolute)
(Eq. 1.14)

►When atmospheric pressure is greater

than system pressure, the term vacuum
pressure is used.
p(vacuum) = patm(absolute) – p(absolute)
(Eq. 1.15)
Patm = (LAϱm g)/A
fig_01_09
 HW1
Question 1.
Liquid kerosene flows through a tube with a constriction as shown below.
The pressure of the kerosene supports two columns of kerosene at point
a and b along the tube.
Determine the difference in pressure between a and b.
Is P at point b lower or greater than at point a?

p = 101 kPa
atm

2
g = 9.81 m/s

L = 10 cm

Kerosene
• •
  a b
v = 0.00122 m /kg
3
Question 2. Below is shown a tank within another tank, both containing air.
Pressure gauge A (which is located within B and open to air in tank B)
reads 5psi (g)( vacuum). The water manometer connected to tank B supports
a water column of 10 “.
Determine the absolute pressure in A and B, in psi (a).

Solutions to be scanned and uploaded to personal drop boxes on

Sakai’s ME331 site by 1/14/2022 2pm
 Lecture 2

Chapter 2

Energy and the

First Law of Thermodynamics

01/18/2022 40
 Learning Outcomes
►Demonstrate understanding of key concepts
related to energy and the first law of
thermodynamics. . . including internal, kinetic,
and potential energy, work and power, heat
transfer and heat transfer modes, heat transfer
rate, power cycle, refrigeration cycle, and heat
pump cycle.

01/18/2022 41
 Learning Outcomes, cont.
►Apply closed system energy balances,
appropriately modeling the case at hand, and
correctly observing sign conventions for work
and heat transfer.
►Conduct energy analyses of systems
undergoing thermodynamic cycles, evaluating
as appropriate thermal efficiencies of power
cycles and coefficients of performance of
refrigeration and heat pump cycles.
01/18/2022 42
 Closed System Energy Balance
►Energy is an extensive property that includes
the kinetic and gravitational potential energy of
engineering mechanics.
►For closed systems, energy is transferred in and
out across the system boundary by two means
only: by work and by heat.
►Energy is conserved. This is the first law of
thermodynamics.

01/18/2022 43
 Closed System Energy Balance
►The closed system energy balance states:

The change in the Net amount of energy

amount of energy transferred in and out
contained within across the system boundary
a closed system by heat and work during
during some time the time interval
interval

►We now consider several aspects of the energy

balance, including what is meant by energy
change and energy transfer.
01/18/2022 44
 Change in Energy of a System

In engineering thermodynamics the change in

energy of a system is composed of three
contributions:
►Kinetic energy
►Gravitational potential energy
►Internal energy

01/18/2022 45
 b
 

ab 
a

01/18/2022 46
 Change in Kinetic Energy
►The change in kinetic energy is associated with the
motion of the system as a whole relative to an
external coordinate frame such as the surface of the
earth.
►For a system of mass m the change in kinetic energy
from state 1 to state 2 is

DKE = KE2 – KE1 =

1
2
m V2
2
 
V1
2
 (Eq. 2.5)

where
►V1 and V2 denote the initial and final velocity magnitudes.
► The symbol D denotes: final value minus initial value.
01/18/2022 47
 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
►The change in gravitational potential energy is
associated with the position of the system in the
earth’s gravitational field.
►For a system of mass m the change in potential
energy from state 1 to state 2 is

DPE = PE2 – PE1 = mg(z2 – z1) (Eq. 2.10)

where
►z1 and z2 denote the initial and final elevations relative to
the surface of the earth, respectively.
►g is the acceleration of gravity.
01/18/2022 48
 Change in Internal Energy
► The change in internal energy is associated with the makeup of
the system, including its chemical composition.
► There is no simple expression comparable to Eqs. 2.5 and 2.10
for evaluating internal energy change for a wide range of
applications. In most cases we will evaluate internal energy
change using data from tables in appendices of the textbook.
► Like kinetic and gravitational potential energy, internal energy
is an extensive property.
►Internal energy is represented by U.
►The specific internal energy on a mass basis is u.
►The specific internal energy on a molar basis is

u.
01/18/2022 49
 Change in Energy of a System
►In summary, the change in energy of a system from
state 1 to state 2 is

E2 – E1 = (U2 – U1) + (KE2 – KE1) + (PE2 – PE1)

(Eq. 2.27a)
DE = DU + DKE + DPE (Eq. 2.27b)
►Since an arbitrary value E1 can be assigned to the
energy of a system at a given state 1, no particular
significance can be attached to the value of energy at
state 1 or any other state. Only changes in the energy
of a system between states have significance.
01/18/2022 50
 Energy Transfer by Work
►Energy can be transferred to and from closed
systems by two means only:
►Work
►Heat
►You have studied work in mechanics and those
concepts are retained in the study of
thermodynamics. However, thermodynamics
deals with phenomena not included within the
scope of mechanics, and this requires a broader
interpretation of work.
01/18/2022 51
 Illustrations of Work
►When a spring is compressed, energy
is transferred to the spring by work.
W=(1/2)kspringX2
►When a gas in a closed vessel is
stirred, energy is transferred to the gas
by work.
►When a battery is charged electrically,
energy is transferred to the battery
contents by work.
►The first two examples of work are encompassed by
mechanics. The third example is an example of the
broader interpretation of work encountered in
thermodynamics.
01/18/2022 52
 Energy Transfer by Work
►The symbol W denotes an amount of energy transferred
across the boundary of a system by work.
►Since engineering thermodynamics is often concerned
with internal combustion engines, turbines, and electric
generators whose purpose is to do work, it is convenient
to regard the work done by a system as positive.
►W > 0: work done by the system
►W < 0: work done on the system
The same sign convention is used for the rate of energy
transfer by work – called power, denoted by

W01/18/2022
. 53
 Energy Transfer by Heat
►Energy transfers by heat are induced only as a
result of a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings.
►Net energy transfer by heat occurs only in the
direction of decreasing temperature.

01/18/2022 54
 Energy Transfer by Heat
►The symbol Q denotes an amount of energy transferred
across the boundary of a system by heat transfer.
►Heat transfer into a system is taken as positive and heat
transfer from a system is taken as negative:
►Q > 0: heat transfer to the system
►Q < 0: heat transfer from the system
The same sign convention is used for the rate of energy
transfer by heat, denoted by
Q .
►If a system undergoes a process involving no heat
transfer with its surroundings, that process is called
adiabatic.
01/18/2022 55
 Summary: Closed System Energy Balance
►The energy concepts introduced thus far are
summarized in words as follows:
change in the amount net amount of energy net amount of energy
of energy contained transferred in across transferred out across
within a system the system boundary by the system boundary
during some time heat transfer during by work during the
interval the time interval time interval

►Using previously defined symbols, this can be

expressed as: E2 – E1 = Q – W (Eq. 2.35a)
►Alternatively, DKE + DPE + DU = Q – W (Eq. 2.35b)
In Eqs. 2.35, a minus sign appears before W because energy
transfer by work from the system to the surrounding is taken as
positive.
01/18/2022 56
 Summary: Closed System Energy Balance
►The time rate form of the closed system energy balance
is
dE  
 Q W (Eq. 2.37)
dt

►The rate form expressed in words is

time rate of change net rate at which net rate at which
of the energy energy is being energy is being
contained within transferred in transferred out
the system at by heat transfer by work at
time t at time t time t

01/18/2022 57
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►A case having many practical applications is a gas (or
liquid) undergoing an expansion (or compression)
process while confined in a piston-cylinder assembly.

►During the process, the gas exerts a normal force on

the piston, F = pA , where p is the pressure at the
interface between the gas and piston and A is the area of
the piston face.
01/18/2022 58
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►From mechanics, the work done by the gas as the
piston face moves from x1 to x2 is given by


W  Fdx 
 pAdx

►Since the product Adx = dV , where V is the volume of

the gas, this becomes
V2
W
V1
pdV (Eq. 2.17)

►For a compression, dV is negative and so is the value of

the integral, in keeping with the sign convention for
work.
01/18/2022 59
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►To perform the integral of Eq. 2.17 requires a
relationship between gas pressure at the interface
between the gas and piston and the total gas volume.
►During an actual expansion of a gas such a
relationship may be difficult, or even impossible, to
obtain owing to non-equilibrium effects during the
process – for example, effects related to combustion in
the cylinder of an automobile engine.
►In most such applications, the work value can be
obtained only by experiment.

01/18/2022 60
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►Eq. 2.17 can be applied to evaluate the work of
idealized processes during which the pressure p in the
integrand is the pressure of the entire quantity of the
gas undergoing the process and not only the pressure at
the piston face.
►For this we imagine the gas undergoes a sequence of
equilibrium states during the process. Such an idealized
expansion (or compression) is called a quasiequilibrium
process.

01/18/2022 61
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►In a quasiequilibrium
expansion, the gas moves
along a pressure-volume
curve, or path, as shown.

►Applying Eq. 2.17, the work

done by the gas on the piston
is given by the area under the
curve of pressure versus
volume.

01/18/2022 62
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►When the pressure-volume relation required by Eq.
2.17 to evaluate work in a quasiequilibrium expansion (or
compression) is expressed as an equation, the evaluation
of work can be simplified. An example is a quasi-
equilibrium process described by pVn = constant , n is a
constant; polytropic process.
►For the case n = 1, pV = constant Eq. 2.17 gives
dV
p=C/V → W

→pdV W  C
V
 V2 
W   constant ln  where constant = p1V1 = p2V2.
01/18/2022
 V1  63
 Modeling Expansion and Compression Work
►Since non-equilibrium effects are invariably present
during actual expansions (and compressions), the work
determined with quasiequilibrium modeling can at best
approximate the actual work of an expansion (or
compression) between given end states.

01/18/2022 64
 Modes of Heat Transfer
►For any particular application, energy transfer
by heat can occur by one or more of three modes:
►conduction
►radiation
►convection

01/18/2022 65
 Conduction
►Conduction is the transfer of energy
from more energetic particles of a
substance to less energetic adjacent
particles due to interactions between
them.
►The time rate of energy transfer by
conduction is quantified by Fourier’s law.
►An application of Fourier’s law to a
plane wall at steady state is shown at
right.

01/18/2022 66
 Conduction
►By Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer across any plane
normal to the x direction, , is proportional to the wall area,
A, and the temperature gradient in the x direction, dT/dx,

dT
Qx  A
 (Eq. 2.31)
dx
where
►k is a proportionality constant, a property of the wall
material called the thermal conductivity.
►The minus sign is a consequence of energy transfer in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
►In this case, temperature varies linearly with x, and thus
dT T2  T1  T2  T1 
 ( 0) and Eq. 2.31 gives Qx  A 


dx L  L  67
01/18/2022
 Thermal Radiation
►Thermal radiation is energy transported by
electromagnetic waves (or photons). Unlike
conduction, thermal radiation requires no
intervening medium and can take place in a vacuum.
►The time rate of energy transfer by radiation is
quantified by expressions developed from the
Stefan-Boltzman law.

01/18/2022 68
 Thermal Radiation
►An application involving net
radiation exchange between a
surface at temperature Tb and a
much larger surface at Ts (< Tb) is
shown at right.
►Net energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and
quantified by
Q  A[T 4  T 4 ]
e b s (Eq. 2.33)
where
►A is the area of the smaller surface,
►e is a property of the surface called its emissivity,
►s is the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
01/18/2022 69
 Convection
►Convection is energy transfer between a solid
surface and an adjacent gas or liquid by the
combined effects of conduction and bulk flow within
the gas or liquid.
►The rate of energy transfer by convection is
quantified by Newton’s law of cooling.

01/18/2022 70
 Convection
►An application involving
energy transfer by convection
from a transistor to air
passing over it is shown at
right.

►Energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and

quantified by
Q c  hA[Tb  Tf ] (Eq. 2.34)
where
►A is the area of the transistor’s surface and
►h is an empirical parameter called the convection heat
transfer coefficient.
01/18/2022 71
 Thermodynamic Cycles
►A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes
that begins and ends at the same state.
►Examples of thermodynamic cycles include
►Power cycles that develop a net energy transfer by work in
the form of electricity using an energy input by heat
transfer from hot combustion gases.
►Refrigeration cycles that provide cooling for a refrigerated
space using an energy input by work in the form of
electricity.
►Heat pump cycles that provide heating to a dwelling using
an energy input by work in the form of electricity.

01/18/2022 72
 Power Cycle
►A system undergoing a power cycle is
shown at right.
►The energy transfers by heat and work
shown on the figure are each positive in the
direction of the accompanying arrow. This
convention is commonly used for analysis of
thermodynamic cycles.
►Wcycle is the net energy transfer by work from the system per cycle
of operation – in the form of electricity, typically.
►Qin is the heat transfer of energy to the system per cycle from the
hot body – drawn from hot gases of combustion or solar radiation, for
instance.
►Qout is the heat transfer of energy from the system per cycle to the
cold body – discharged to the surrounding atmosphere or nearby lake
or river, for example.
01/18/2022 73
 Power Cycle
►Applying the closed system energy balance to each cycle of
operation,
DEcycle = Qcycle – Wcycle (Eq. 2.39)
►Since the system returns to its initial state after each cycle,
there is no net change in its energy: DEcycle = 0, and the
energy balance reduces to give
Wcycle = Qin – Qout (Eq. 2.41)
►In words, the net energy transfer by work from the system
equals the net energy transfer by heat to the system, each per
cycle of operation.
01/18/2022 74
 Power Cycle
►The performance of a system undergoing a power cycle is
evaluated on an energy basis in terms of the extent to which
the energy added by heat, Qin, is converted to a net work
output, Wcycle. This is represented by the ratio
Wcycle
 (power cycle) (Eq. 2.42)
Qin

called the thermal efficiency.

►Introducing Eq. 2.41, an alternative form is obtained
Qin  Qout Q
  1  out (power cycle) (Eq. 2.43)
Qin Qin

01/18/2022 75
 Power Cycle
►Using the second law of thermodynamics (Chapter 5), we will
show that the value of thermal efficiency must be less than unity: h
< 1 (< 100%). That is, only a portion of the energy added by heat,
Qin, can be obtained as work. The remainder, Qout, is discharged.

Example: A system undergoes a power cycle while receiving 1000 kJ

by heat transfer from hot combustion gases at a temperature of 500
K and discharging 600 kJ by heat transfer to the atmosphere at 300 K.
Taking the combustion gases and atmosphere as the hot and cold
bodies, respectively, determine for the cycle, the net work
developed, in kJ, and the thermal efficiency.
►Substituting into Eq. 2.41, Wcycle = 1000 kJ – 600 kJ = 400 kJ.
►Then, with Eq. 2.42, h = 400 kJ/1000 kJ = 0.4 (40%). Note the
thermal efficiency is commonly reported on a percent basis.
01/18/2022 76
 Refrigeration Cycle
►A system undergoing a refrigeration
cycle is shown at right.
►As before, the energy transfers are
each positive in the direction of the
accompanying arrow.
►Wcycle is the net energy transfer by work to the system per
cycle of operation, usually in the form of electricity.
►Qin is the heat transfer of energy to the system per cycle
from the cold body – drawn from a freezer compartment, for
example.
►Qout is the heat transfer of energy from the system per cycle
to the hot body – discharged to the space surrounding the
01/18/2022 77
refrigerator, for instance.
 Refrigeration Cycle
►Since the system returns to its initial state after each
cycle, there is no net change in its energy: DEcycle = 0,
and the energy balance reduces to give

|Wcycle | = Qout – Qin (Eq. 2.44)

►In words, the net energy transfer by work to the

system equals the net energy transfer by heat from the
system, each per cycle of operation.

01/18/2022 78
 Refrigeration Cycle
►The performance of a system undergoing a refrigeration
cycle is evaluated on an energy basis as the ratio of energy
drawn from the cold body, Qin, to the net work required to
accomplish this effect, Wcycle:
Qin
 (refrigeration cycle) (Eq. 2.45)
Wcycle

called the coefficient of performance for the refrigeration

cycle.
►Introducing Eq. 2.44, an alternative form is obtained
Qin
 (refrigeration cycle) (Eq. 2.46)
Qout  Qin
01/18/2022 79
 Heat Pump Cycle
►The heat pump cycle analysis closely
parallels that given for the refrigeration
cycle. The same figure applies:

►But now the focus is on Qout, which

is the heat transfer of energy from
the system per cycle to the hot body
– such as to the living space of a
dwelling.
►Qin is the heat transfer of energy to the system per
cycle from the cold body – drawn from the
surrounding atmosphere or the ground, for example.
01/18/2022 80
 Heat Pump Cycle

►As before, Wcycle is the net

energy transfer by work to the
system per cycle, usually
provided in the form of
electricity.

►As for the refrigeration cycle, the energy balance

reads
Wcycle = Qout – Qin (Eq. 2.44)
01/18/2022 81
 Heat Pump Cycle
►The performance of a system undergoing a heat pump
cycle is evaluated on an energy basis as the ratio of energy
provided to the hot body, Qout, to the net work required to
accomplish this effect, Wcycle:
Qout
  (heat pump cycle) (Eq. 2.47)
Wcycle

called the coefficient of performance for the heat pump

cycle.
►Introducing Eq. 2.44, an alternative form is obtained
Qout
  (heat pump cycle) (Eq. 2.48)
Qout  Qin
01/18/2022 82
 Heat Pump Cycle
Example: A system undergoes a heat pump cycle while
discharging 900 kJ by heat transfer to a dwelling at 20oC
and receiving 600 kJ by heat transfer from the outside air at
5oC. Taking the dwelling and outside air as the hot and cold
bodies, respectively, determine for the cycle, the net work
input, in kJ, and the coefficient of performance.
►Substituting into Eq. 2.44, Wcycle = 900 kJ – 600 kJ = 300 kJ.
►Then, with Eq. 2.47, g = 900 kJ/300 kJ = 3.0. Note the
coefficient of performance is reported as its numerical value, as
calculated here.

01/18/2022 83
 ME331
HW2
Q1. A system undergoes a power cycle for which some data are given in Btu units,
in the table below. Determine the missing table entries and the thermal efficiency of this cycle.

Q2. A gas within a piston-cylinder device undergoes a cycle that begins at state 1
where p1= 1 bar and V1=1.5 m3. There are no changes in KE and PE.

Determine Q12, Q31 and U3, in kJ. Is it a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle?, explain .
Q3. Another piston-cylinder system undergoes the following
cycle:
 A (very) Brief History of
Thermodynamics

…and it all started sometime

after the Big Bang

Industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th

Century. The driving force of
thermodynamics was the invention of the
steam engine (~ 1700)
 Denis Papin (22 August 1647 - c. 1712) was a 
French born physicist, mathematician 
and inventor, best known for his pioneering 
invention of the steam digester, the
forerunner of the steam engine and of the 
pressure cooker.

In 1679, an associate of Boyle's (V~1/P)

Robert Boyle and Denis Papin
Inspecting Papin's digester
named Denis Papin built a bone digester,
which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting
lid that confines steam until a high pressure
is generated. Later designs implemented
a steam release valve to keep the machine
from exploding. By watching the valve
Rhythmically move up and down,
Papin conceived of the idea of a piston
and cylinder engine. He did not,
however, follow through with his design.
FROM WIKI
Thomas Newcomen (shortly before 24 February 1664 –[1] 5 August 1729)
was an ironmonger by trade and a Baptist lay preacher by calling.
He was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England, near a part of the country noted for
its tin mines. Flooding was a major problem, limiting the depth at which the mineral
could be mined. Newcomen created the first practical steam engine for pumping
water, theNewcomen steam engine by greatly improving  Thomas Savery's steam 
pump (the first commercially successful steam-operated device ~1698)
Consequently, he can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution.

The atmospheric engine invented by
 Thomas Newcomen in 1712, today referred
to as a Newcomen steam engine
 (or simply Newcomen engine), was the first
practical device to harness the power of steam
 to produce mechanical work. Newcomen
engines were used throughout Britain and 
Europe, principally to pump water out of mines,
starting in the early 18th century.
James Watt, (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819)
 was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer 
whose improvements to the Newcomen steam
Engine were fundamental to the changes brought
by the Industrial Revolution in both the 
Kingdom of Great Britain and the world.
Watt has been described as one of the most
influential figures in human history
James Watt developed (1763–75) an improved
version of Newcomen's engine, with a separate
condenser.  Watt's engine used 75% less coal
than Newcomen's, and was hence much
cheaper to run. Watt proceeded to develop his
engine further, modifying it to provide a rotary
motion suitable for driving factory machinery.
This enabled factories to be sited away
from rivers, and further accelerated the pace
of the Industrial Revolution.
 Heat and temperature

Initially, heat was considered to be a “fluid” (caloric) that

moves from a body at high temperature to one at low
temperature and the distinction between heat and
temperature was unclear.
• The invention of thermometers accelerated they study
of the nature of heat:
• Galileo’s (1564-1642) thermometer (constructed 1592)
had no scale
• Anders Celsius (1701–1744) created the centigrade
scale (1742) and assigned 0 to the boiling point and 100
degrees to the freezing point
• Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 – 1736) invented
the mercury-in-glass thermometer (1714) and created a
temperature scale based on 3 points:
• 0 - mixture of ice, water and ammonium chloride
• 32 – freezing water (surface ice)
• 96 – thermometer placed under the arm or in the
mouth (now this point is assigned 98.2 degrees F)
• Joseph Black (1728-1799) used insightfully the
thermometer and established that the
temperature of all bodies in contact is the
same (was not obvious before, e.g. touch
metal and wood in contact…).
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics
• Black discovered specific heats and measured
latent heats of fusion and evaporation of
water (with the help of his pupil James Watt)
During the 19thCent., the correct view of heat was uncovered
(energy transfer from a hot system to a cold system)

Count Rumford (Benjamin Thomson, a loyalist who escaped

from America to Europe)
while carrying out and investigating canon boring
for the government of Bavaria,
discovered that heat can be produced infinitely from work,
and concluded it is not a“fluid”
Thus, heat is energy in motion
from a hot system to cold
surroundings
Some effects of heat:
-increasing the temperature of a

body
-melting a body
-vaporizing a liquid
-producing mechanical work
 WORK

• Newton (force x distance)

•Heat and Work are two aspects of energy being

transferred between systems; work can be completely
converted to heat (Rumford, Joule(1840));
but not the opposite (when executing thermodynamical
cycles)
 the First Law of thermodynamics

•Energy is a property of a body while

heat and work are not

•Energy comes in many forms

• conservation of energy) Mayer (a

German physician)(1842)

•energy is related to heat and work by the

1st Law of Thermodynamics
(Helmholz, Clausius, ca 1850)

DU= Q-W
 Around 1820, still no any theory of the steam engine!
Carnot: "Is the work available from a heat source
potentially unbounded?" and "Can heat engines in
principle be improved by replacing the steam with some
other working fluid or gas?
He described an idealized engine that could be used to
understand and clarify the fundamental principles that
Father are of general applicability to all heat engines:
of Thermodynamics

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann

(1844-1906)
Statistical thermodynamics
 The Second Law

•Operation of steam engines showed that heat cannot be

completely converted to work

•Carnot (Reflections on the Motive Force of Fire, 1824)

showed theoretically why this is so

•Clausius and Kelvin developed the concept of reversible and

irreversible processes
• Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to operate a
thermodynamical cycle and deliver a net amount of energy by
work to its surrounding while receiving energy by heat
trannsfer from a single heat source

•Clausius statement: It is impossible for any sytem to operate

in such a way that the sole result would be an energy transfer
by heat from a cooler to a hotter body.
Cycles for producing useful work were
developed in the 19th Century
(Rankine, Otto, Brayton).