ESTHER SULING EDMOND 58583

KNJ 3363 HEAT TRANSFER

ASSIGNMENT A1: INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER
1. What is the driving force for;
a) Heat transfer
The driving force for heat transfer is temperature difference because
without any difference in temperature heat cannot be transferred from a
body to another.
b) Electric current flow
Voltage or electric potential difference is the driving force for electric
current flow.
c) Fluid flow
The driving force for fluid flow is the pressure difference that exist in
the fluid.
2. What is heat flux? How is it related to the heat transfer rate?
The amount of heat flowing per unit area is known as heat flux. For a given
body, if heat is flowing in it through conduction then heat flux can be considered
as the ratio of the amount of heat flowing in the body to the area normal to the
direction of heat flow.
3. Define thermal conductivity and explain its significance in heat transfer.
The thermal conductivity of a material is the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area and per unit temperature difference. The
thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast heat will be
conducted in that material.
4. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer? How are they distinguished
from each other?
The mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles. Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent liquid or gas which is in motion, and it involves combined effects
of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation is energy emitted by matter in the
form of electromagnetic waves or photons as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
5. What is the physical mechanism of heat conduction in a solid, a liquid, and
a gas?
In solids, conduction is due to the combination of the vibrations of the molecules
in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. In gases and liquids, it is
due to the collisions of the molecules during their random motion.
6. Consider heat transfer through a windowless wall of a house in a winter
day. Discuss the parameters that affect the rate of heat of conduction
through the wall.
The geometry and surface area of wall, its thickness, the material of the wall,
and the temperature differences across the wall are the parameters that effect the
rate of heat conduction through a windowless wall.
7. Write down the expressions for physical laws that govern each mode of heat
transfer, and identify the variables involved in each relation.
𝑑𝑇
Conduction is expressed by Fourier’s law of conduction as 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥

where dT/dx is the temperature gradient, k is the thermal conductivity, and

A is the area which is normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Convection is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, 𝐴𝑠 is the surface area through
which convection heat transfer takes place, 𝑇𝑠 is the surface temperature, and
𝑇∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
Radiation is expressed by Stefan-Boltzman law as 𝑄̇𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4
)
where 𝜀 is the emissivity of the surface, 𝐴𝑠 is the surface area, 𝑇𝑠4 is the surface
4
temperature, 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 is the average surrounding surface temperature, and 𝜎 =
5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 . K 4 is the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
8. How does heat conduction differ from convection?
Convection involves fluid motion, meanwhile conduction does not. In a solid
we can only have conduction.
9. Does any of the energy of the sun reach the earth by conduction or
convection?
No. It is purely by radiation.
10. How does force convection differ from natural convection?
In forced convection, the fluid is forced to move by external means such as
pump, a fan, or the wind. Meanwhile, fluid motion in natural convection is due
to buoyancy effects only.
11. Define emissivity and absorptivity. What is Kirchhoff’s law of radiation?
The ratio of the radiation emitted by a surface to the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature is known as emissivity. Absorptivity is the
fraction of radiation incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. The
Kirchhoff's law of radiation states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a
surface are equal at the same temperature and wavelength.
12. What is blackbody? How do real bodies differ from blackbodies?
A blackbody is an idealized body which emits the maximum amount of radiation
at a given temperature and absorbs all the radiation incident on it. Real bodies
emit and absorb less radiation than a blackbody at the same temperature.
13. Predict the term “Greenhouse effect on earth” and give solutions on how to
tackle the problem.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When
the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to
the space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiate by greenhouse gases. The
greenhouse gases contain water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The
absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This
process maintains the Earth’s temperature at around more than 30 degrees
Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist. The
problem our Earth facing right now is that human activities are out of control.
One of it is burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Agriculture and
land clearing also one of the human activities that are out of control which leads
to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is the enhanced
greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of the Earth. In order to
live healthily and to keep our Earth sustainable, there are some solutions to
reduce the greenhouse effect on Earth. One of it is to switch entirely to
renewable energy such as hydro dams and solar power. Other than switching to
renewable energy, we can also plant more trees and other plants as they absorb
carbon dioxide from the surrounding. This will helps on reducing the amount
carbon dioxide release to the atmosphere.