Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
 WHY STUDYING
WHAT IS
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS?

Study of
energy
and work 1.1) INTRODUCTION
TO
THERMODYNAMICS

SAMPLE
APPLICATIONS

- Air conditioning unit

- Heat engines
(diesel and petrol engines)
- Power plants
 1.2) THERMODYNAMICS
LAWS

CONSERVATION
OF SECOND
ZEROTH FIRST
ENERGY LAW
LAW LAW
PRINCIPLE
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
PRINCIPLE

• During an interaction, energy can change

from one form to another, but total
amount of energy remains the same.

• That is, energy cannot be created or

destroyed.

• It can only change forms

 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a A B
third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• By referring to figure below, if TA=TC and C
TB=TC, then TA=TB

• By replacing the third body with a

thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in
contact.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• The first law of thermodynamics is simply an

expression of the conservation of energy
principle.

• In any process, the total energy of the

universe remains the same
E in =  Eout ( for steady systems )
E system =  Ein −  Eout ( for unsteady systems )
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• There are three ways to state this law:

a.) Heat generally cannot

spontaneously flow from a
material at lower temperature to a
material at higher temperature.
“Heat does not flow from cold to
hot (without work input)”
A cup of hot coffee does not get hotter in a cooler
room.
b.) In a system, a process that occurs will tend to
increase the total entropy of the universe.

c.) It is impossible to convert heat completely into

work in a cyclic process. That is, it is impossible to
extract energy by heat from a high-temperature
energy source and then convert all of the energy
into work. At least some of the energy must be
passed on to heat at low temperature energy sink.
 Heat Heat
source source

Heat in Heat in

HE Work HE Work

Heat out

Heat
sink

Thus, a heat engine with 100% efficiency is

thermodynamically impossible.
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are
called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length
L, time t, and temperature T are selected as
primary or fundamental dimensions, while
others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume
V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Metric SI system (International System): A
simple and logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various units.
• English system (United States Customary
System): It has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this system
are related to each other rather arbitrarily (12 in
= 1 ft, 1 mile = 5280 ft, etc.). 6
 Some SI and English Units
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and
second (s), respectively. The respective units in the English system are the pound-
mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s).

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ The SI unit prefixes are used in all
branches of engineering.
Force: a secondary dimension
whose unit is derived from
Newton’s second law

7
The definition of the force units.
Dimensional homogeneity To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
terms in an equation
must have the same unit.
Unity Conversion Ratios
Example:
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
1 2
formed by combinations of primary units. s = ut + at
Force units, for example, can be expressed as 2

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and

are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses)
Example :
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to Convert 2 rev / m in to
properly convert units.
deg/ sec
 Example 1
Using unity conversion ratios, show that 1.00 kg weighs 9.807 N on earth.

1 kg

Mass is the same regardless of its location. However, on some other

planet with a different value of gravitational acceleration, the weight
of 1 kg would differ from that calculated here.

10
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
 1.2) TYPES OF SYSTEMS

CLOSED OPEN ISOLATED

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
• Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary. But energy, in the form of
heat or work, can cross the boundary. Volume does not have to be
fixed.
• Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such
as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It
can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
• Isolated system : Similar to a closed
system, but even energy is not allowed
to cross the boundary.

• It cannot exist naturally.

• An example would be well insulated

container, such as an insulated gas
cylinder or thermos flask.
• Universe ?
 PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass [example: Criterion to differentiate intensive
specific volume, (v = V/m)]. and extensive properties.
14
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Specific volume at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
16
* Substances with specific gravities less than 1 are lighter than water, and thus they would float on water.
25
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
State: Describes characteristics of a system.
Thermodynamics properties are used to
describe the state.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change A system at two different states.
in pressure at any point of the system with
time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two
phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change with
time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.

A closed system reaching thermal

equilibrium.
26

The State Postulate

The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive
properties.

The state of nitrogen is

fixed by two independent,
intensive properties.
27

PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all
times.
28
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
• Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical (it
returns to its initial state at the end of the process).
23
The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
During a steady-
change with time. The
opposite of steady is flow process, the
unsteady, or transient. fluid properties
can change from
• A large number of point to point
engineering devices operate
within the control
for long periods of time under
volume, but at
the same conditions, and they
are classified as steady-flow any fixed point
devices. they remain the
same during the
• Steady-flow process: A entire process
process during which a fluid
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can be
closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
or refrigeration systems. Under steady-flow conditions, the volume
V, mass m, and total energy content E of a 24
control volume remain constant.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 25
Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on P versus T plots
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that from a constant-
is in equilibrium with air saturated with volume gas
vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F). thermometer
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water using four
and water vapor (with no air) in different gases
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or at different (but
212°F).
low) pressures.
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Example: Kelvin scale (SI) & Rankine
scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to the
Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas temperature
scale. The temperatures on this scale are
measured using a constant-volume gas
thermometer. A constant-volume gas thermometer would
read 273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
* Constant-V gas thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures, the temperature of
26
a gas is proportional to its pressure at constant volume.
* K scale is developed later in conjunction with the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
27
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
 Example 2
During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10°C.
Express this rise in temperature in K, °F, and R.

28
PRESSURE
• Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
• We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
• The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
• Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of
newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa).

• The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
→kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) & megapascal (1 Mpa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used.
• Three other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe,
29
are bar, standard atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square centimeter.
 PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
Afeet=300cm2 than on the feet of a slim person.

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P = 68 kgf / 300 cm2

=0.23 kgf/cm2

Some
basic
pressure
☺ gages.
30
• Absolute pressure: the actual pressure at a given position, and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in
the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure → this difference is called
the gage pressure.
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum pressure and it
is measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures are all positive
quantities and are related to Pgage
each other by:
Patm
Pvac Pabs

Patm Patm
Pabs

Pabs=0
31
 Example 3
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 40 kPa at a location where
the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in
the chamber.

32
39

Variation of Pressure with Depth

When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight).
40

In a room filled with

a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
41

Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a

confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s
law.
 The Manometer
• It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
• A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
• To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids
such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.
• Consider the manometer is used to measure the
pressure in the tank.
• Since the gravitational effects of gases are
negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and
at position 1 has the same value.
• Since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the
horizontal direction within a fluid, the pressure at
point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1 →
P2 = P1.
• The differential fluid column of height h is in static The basic manometer.
equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere.
• Then the pressure at point 2 is determined
directly to be:
where ρ = density of the fluid in the tube.
33
43

The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh.
 Example 4
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used
has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm.
If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute
pressure within the tank.

35
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
Surface tension - [mass noun]the tension of the surface film of a
liquid caused by the attraction of the particles in the surface layer
The basic barometer. by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimize surface area.

where ρ is the density of mercury, g is the local gravitational acceleration, and h is the 36
height of the mercury column above the free surface.
 Example 5
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric
reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density is
13,570 kg/m3.

37