Module 3

ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
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 What is Thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is a science which deals with energy and its conversion and
transformation.
Thermodynamics derived from a Greek word : Thermo : Heat
Dynamics : Power
Thermodynamics is the science dealing with:
Energy and its transformations.
Feasibility of a process.
Concept of Equilibrium processes.
Thermodynamics is the study of three ‘E’
 Energy
 Equilibrium
 Entropy
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 Application Area of Thermodynamics

• Energy transfer is present in almost all the engineering activities.

Hence, the principles of thermodynamics are playing vital role in
designing all the engineering equipment such as internal combustion
engines, rockets, jet engines, thermal and nuclear power plants,
refrigerators etc.
• Modeling, and design of computer systems like chipset design,
optimization of processor and many more
• Cooling of computer chips
• Cooling of entire computers

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 Scope of Thermodynamics:

 Steam power plant

Separation and Liquefaction Plant
 Refrigeration
Air-conditioning and Heating Devices.
 Internal combustion engine
 Chemical power plants
 Turbines
 Compressors

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The principles of thermodynamics are summarized in the form of four thermodynamic laws:

• The Zeroth Law deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a means for measuring temperatures.
• The First Law deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept of internal energy.
• The Second Law of thermodynamics provides with the guidelines on the conversion of internal energy
of matter into work. It also introduces the concept of entropy.
• The Third Law of thermodynamics defines the absolute zero of entropy. The entropy of a pure
crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.

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 Classification of Thermodynamics
Classical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Statistical Thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states
of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic,
measurable properties. Classical Thermodynamics studies the
relationships between the State functions of the system: i.e. Pressure,
Temperature, Volume, Energy, Entropy etc.

The microscopic approach to thermodynamics, known as statistical

thermodynamics, is concerned directly with the structure of matter. In
this, study is carried out at the molecular level and it is also termed as
microscopic approach. The properties like velocity, momentum, impulse,
kinetic energy, force of impact etc. which describe the molecule cannot be
easily measured by instruments. Our senses cannot feel them.

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Write the difference between Macroscopic and Microscopic
approach of Thermodynamics
Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach
1.Macroscopic approach is known 1.Microscopic approach is known as
as Classical Thermodynamics. statistical thermodynamics.
2.Attention is focused on a certain 2.A knowledge of the structure of
quantity of matter without matter under consideration is
taking into account the events essential.
occurring at molecular level. 3.A large no. of variables are required
3.Only a few variables are used to for a complete specification of the
describe the state of the matter state of matter under consideration.
under consideration. 4.The variables used to describe the
4.The values of the variables used state of matter cannot be measured
to describe the state of the easily and precisely. So the
matter are easily measurable. approach is complicated.
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System:
A thermodynamic system is defined as a certain quantity of matter or
a region in space upon which attention is focussed in the analysis of
a problem. Also defined as a region under consideration.
Surrounding: Everything external to the system is Surroundings.
Boundary:
The real or imaginary line or surface
which separates the system from the surrounding.
 System and surrounding interact through boundary.
 Boundary can be real (or) imaginary.
 Boundary can be fixed (or) moving.

System and Surrounding put together is known as Universe

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 Thermodynamic System

• Systems may be considered to be closed or

open, depending on whether a fixed mass or
a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

A closed system(also known as a control

mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass i.e
no mass can cross its boundary. (no mass
can enter or leave a closed system). But
energy, in the form of heat or work, can
cross the boundary. and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.

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Open System(Control Volume): The open system is one in which
both mass and energy transfer occur across the system
boundary.

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 A cup of hot coffee is a Open System or a
Closed System ?

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 The concept of Control Volume

Control volume refers to a definite volume through

which both mass and energy flows.
Examples: Nozzles, Diffusers, Turbines,
Compressors,
Heat Exchanger, De-superheater, Throttling valves,
I.C engine etc.
Control Surface: The closed surface that surrounds
the control volume is called CONTROL SURFACE.

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 Isolated System: The isolated system is one in which neither
mass nor energy crosses the system boundary. Therefore it is of
fixed mass and energy.

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 Interaction Between System and Surrounding
Mass Transfer
Interaction
between
system and
surrounding Heat

Energy Transfer

Work

Based on the type of interaction, the systems are classified as

• CLOSED SYSTEM
• OPEN SYSTEM
• ISOLATED SYSTEM
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Note:
Mass Transfer Energy Transfer Type of System

No Yes Closed System

Yes Yes Open System

No No Isolated System

Yes No Impossible
 What do you mean by Thermodynamic Property?
Any observable characteristics required to describe the conditions or state of a system is known as
Thermodynamic property of a system. Thermodynamic properties are classified into two categories:
intensive and extensive.
Intensive properties are independent of quantity of matter or mass whereas extensive properties
are dependent on mass

Properties

Intensive Extensive
(Independent of (Depends on mass
mass) )
(Ex : Temp. Pressure Ex. Total mass.
Density.) Total volume,
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 Differentiate Intensive and Extensive Property.
Extensive Property Intensive Property
1.Extensive properties are 1.Intensive properties are
dependent on the mass of a independent of the mass of a
system. system.
2.Extensive properties are additive. 2.Intensive properties are not
3.Its value for an overall system is additive.
the sum of its values for the parts 3.Its value remains the same
into which the system is divided. whether one considers the whole
4.Example:mass(m),volume(V),Ener system or only a part of it.
gy(E),Enthalpy(H) etc. 4.Example:Pressure(P),Temperatur
5.Uppercase letters are used for e(T),Density etc.
extensive properties except mass 5.Lowercase letters are used for
intensive properties except
pressure(P) and temp.(T)
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 Specific property=

Example: Specific volume (v) = Volume(V)/mass(m)

Specific enthalpy (h) = Enthalpy(H)/mass(m)
Specific entropy (s) = Entropy(S)/mass(m)
Note : Specific properties are Intensive properties.
Measurable Properties : Pressure(P), Temperature(T),
Volume(V).
Calculated Properties : Internal energy(U),Enthalpy(H),
Entropy(S)
Quantities that are not Thermodynamic property:
Heat, Work, and mass flow rate.
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 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to exist in a state of Thermodynamic Equilibrium when no changes
in macroscopic property is observed if the system is isolated from its surrounding.
At the state of equilibrium, the properties of the system are uniform and only one
value can be assigned to it.
A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if the condition for
following three types of equilibrium are satisfied.
1. Thermal Equilibrium
2. Mechanical Equilibrium
3. Chemical Equilibrium

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Thermal Equilibrium (Equality of Temperature)

A state of thermal equilibrium can be

described as one in which the
temperature of the system is
uniform throughout the entire
system.
Mechanical Equilibrium (Equality of Pressure)
In the absence of any unbalanced force within the system itself and also between the
system and the surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of mechanical
equilibrium.
OR
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium
if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Chemical Equilibrium (Equality of chemical potential)
• A system is in chemical equilibrium when its chemical composition does not change with
time, that is no chemical reaction occurs .
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 Property, State, and Process
A property is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as
mass, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature to which a
numerical value can be assigned at a given time without
knowledge of the previous behavior (history) of the system.

State:
• State refers to the condition of a system as described by its
properties. It gives a complete description of the system.
• Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change
is called change of state .
• A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties
change with time.

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Process:
• When a system undergoes a change from
one equilibrium state to another as a result
of energy transfer in the form of heat or
work between system and surrounding is
called as a process.
• The series of state through a system passes
during a change of state is Path of the
system.
• To describe a process completely, one should specify
• the initial state and
• final state of the process, as well as
• the path it follows, and
• the interactions with the surroundings.

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• To describe a process completely, one should specify
• the initial state and
• final state of the process, as well as
• the path it follows, and
• the interactions with the surroundings.

Quasi-Static, or Quasi-Equilibrium Process

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimal close
to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium,
process.
A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the
system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not
change any faster than those at other parts.

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 QUASI-STATIC PROCESS

Characteristics QUASI-STATIC PROCESS

 Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of this process.

 A quasi-static process is thus a sequence of equilibrium states.
 It can be represented as a continuous line on the property diagram.
 It is also known as a reversible process.
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 NON-EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS

Nonquasi-equilibrium process is denoted by a dashed line between the initial and final states
instead of a solid line.

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The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant.
We can allow one of the properties to remain a constant during a process.
Isothermal Constant Temperature (T)
Isobaric Constant Pressure (P)
Isochoric Constant Volume (V)
Isentropic Constant Entropy (s)
Isenthalpic Constant Enthalpy (h)
.

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 Cycle
When a system in a given initial state undergoes a series of processes and
returns to initial state at the end of process, then the system is said to have
undergone a thermodynamic cycle.

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REVERSIBLE PROCESS
Reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the end of the process
both the system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state without producing
any changes in rest of the Universe.

Characteristics of Reversible Process

1. A Reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient so that every state
pass through by the system is in equilibrium.
2. It is possible to execute the process in either of the direction.
3. No dissipative effect such as friction are present.
4. Heat and work interactions of the system and the surroundings in the reverse process are equal
and opposite in direction to the same in the forward process.

Examples
1. Frictionless isothermal expansion or compression of a fluid.
2. Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of a fluid.
3. Elastic stretching of a solid.
4. Electric current with zero resistance.
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 IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
An irreversible process is one that is carried out in such a way that the system and
surrounding can not be exactly restored to their respective initial state at the end
of the reverse process, that a net change occurs in the Universe.
Note: In an irreversible the surrounding would always be affected by loss of work
and gain of low temperature heat, which can be considered as waste heat for
the surrounding.

Causes of an Irreversibility:

The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.
(i) Lack of Equilibrium.
(ii) Involvement of Dissipative effects.

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 Lack of Equilibrium ( Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical )
The lack of equilibrium between the system and the surroundings or between the
two systems causes a spontaneous change which makes the process irreversible.
Examples:
1. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.
2. Compression or Expansion through a finite pressure difference between the
system and the surroundings.
3. Free expansion or Unrestrained expansion.
4. Mixing of substances.
Dissipative Effects: Dissipation results in the transformation of work into molecular
energy of the system.
Examples:
1. Friction.
2. Flow of electricity through a resistor.
3. Paddle wheel work transfer. etc
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Internal Irreversibility: It is caused by the internal dissipative effect like friction,
electric resistance etc within the system.
External Irreversibility: It refers to irreversibility occurring at the system boundary.
Ex: Heat interaction with surrounding due to finite temperature difference.
Differentiate between Internal and External reversible.
Internal Reversible External Reversible
1. No irreversibility occurs within 1. No irreversibility exists in the
the system. surrounding.
2. System passes through a series 2. Heat transfer can occur
of equilibrium states. between the system and the
surrounding at infinitesimal
temperature difference.

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 Characteristics of an Irreversible Process:
1. It can be carried out in one direction only.
2. It occurs at a finite rate.
3. During an irreversible process, the system is not in equilibrium.
4. An irreversible process cannot be reversed without causing
permanent changes in the surroundings.

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 SHOW THAT FRICTION MAKES THE PROCESS IRREVERSIBLE.
Let first consider a smooth surface. A Block of Weight Q
move up by 𝛿𝑥 distance and again taking back the block to
it initial position.
Let the block of weight Q is placed on a smooth
plane mean no friction is acting.
If the block is lifted by 𝛿𝑥 distance up
So work done(W1) will be = net force x displacement
𝛿𝑥
W1 = 𝑄 sin 𝜃 ∗ 𝛿𝑥

Similarly if we lowdown the block back to its initial state

Work done(W2) will be = net force x displacement
W2 = 𝑄 sin 𝜃 ∗ 𝛿𝑥
𝑄 sin 𝜃
As we need the same amount of work while reverse the
process. It’s a Reversible process in the absent of friction.

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 Now Lets consider a rough surface
𝐹

𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥
𝑄 sin 𝜃

block is lifted up
block is moving down
𝑄 sin 𝜃
𝐹 Similarly if we lowdown the block back to its initial state
Frictional force F will be acting towards upward
Let the block of weight Q is placed on a Rough plane means
Work done(W2) will be = net force x displacement
friction is acting.
W2 = (𝑄 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹) ∗ 𝛿𝑥
If the block is lifted up by 𝛿𝑥 distance
Frictional force F will be acting in downward
So work done(W1) will be = net force x displacement
W1 = (𝑄 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹) ∗ 𝛿𝑥

It can be clearly observed that while we will reverse the process with the
presence of friction the amount of work done is not same(W1 ≠ W2).
So21-May-22
it’s 8:47
a Irreversible
AM process. 37
 W1 = (𝑄 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹) ∗ 𝛿𝑥 While the block i𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝

W2 = (𝑄 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹) ∗ 𝛿𝑥 While the block i𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

Thus the surrounding is a loser of work.

And the lost in work is W1 − W2 = 2F ∗ 𝛿𝑥.
In addition, an equivalent amount of heat is generated due to friction.
This heat is gained by the surroundings as waste heat.

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 POINT FUNCTION VS PATH FUNCTION

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Point Function

• When a system undergoes a change from one state to another , the properties of
the system also change, which depends only on the end states and not on the path
followed between these two states. Therefore, properties are called state function
or point function.

• Point functions can be represented by a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes)

• Any quantity whose change is independent of the path is known as point function.
• The magnitude of such quantity in a process depends on the state.
• Properties have exact differential and denoted by “d”
• Change in volume , pressure, temperature, is represented by dv, dp, dt.
2
• 1 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 (𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙)
• Properties are the examples of point function like pressure(P),
Volume(V),Temp.(T),Energy etc.
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 1. Any quantity, the value of which depends on the path
Path Function followed during a change of state is known as path
function.
2. The magnitude of such quantity in a process is equal to the
area under the curve on a property diagram.
3. These are inexact differential and is donated by δ
4. Ex: Heat and work

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 POINT FUNCTION
1. Any quantity whose change
is independent of the path is
known as point function.
2. The magnitude of such
quantity in a process depends
on the state.
3. These are exact differential.
Ex:
4. Properties are the examples of
point function like pressure(P),
Volume(V),Temp.(T),Energy
etc.
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PATH FUNCTION
1. Any quantity, the value of
which depends on the path
followed during a change of
state is known as path
function.
2. The magnitude of such
quantity in a process is equal
to the area under the curve
on a property diagram.
3. These are inexact
differential.
Inexact differential is denoted
by δ .
4. Ex: Heat and work
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 Pressure
Pressure : It is defined as the normal force per unit area.
Hydrostatic Pressure: The pressure exerted by a water column is called
hydrostatic pressure. It is equal to the force due to the weight of the
fluid column per unit area.
Units :
1Pa = 1 N/m2
1kPa = 1 kN/m2 =1000Pa
1MPa = 1 kN/m2 =106 Pa
1bar = 105 Pa = 0.1MPa
1atm = 101.325kPa

𝑀𝑔
P=
𝐴

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Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures

• Actual pressure at a give point is called the absolute pressure.

• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the

atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.

• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressure,

Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

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Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨

𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 ∗ 𝑨

𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 ∗ 𝑨 = 𝑾 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨

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A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston–cylinder device. The piston
has a mass of 3.2 kg and a cross sectional area of 35 cm2.A compressed
spring above the piston exerts a force of 150 N on the piston. If the
atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine the pressure inside the cylinder
Answer:147kPa 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟓 𝒄𝒎 =
𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝟐
= 𝟑𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑵
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 ∗ 𝑨 = 𝑾 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨 + 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨 = 𝟗𝟓 ∗ 𝑨 𝑾 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 = + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 +
𝑨 𝑨
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 3.2 ∗ 9.81 1 N/m21 = Pa
1kPa = 1 kN/m2 =1000Pa

𝑾 + 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝟏
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 +
𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 ∗ 𝑨

𝟑. 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟏
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝟗𝟓 + = 𝟗𝟓 + 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟐 𝒌𝒑𝒂
21-May-22 8:47 AM 𝟑𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 48
Q. The piston diameters are D1=10 cm and D2=4cm. When the pressure in chamber2 is
2000kPa and the pressure in chamber3 is 700kPa, What is the pressure in chamber 1,in
kPa? Ans: 908 kPa

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 Q. The cylinder – piston assembly shown in fig contains 0.1m3 of a
gas at a pressure of 101.325 kPa. At this stage the spring is touching
the piston but exerts no force on it. The gas is heated till the
volume is doubled. During this process the force exerted by the
spring is proportional to the displacement of the piston. If the
spring constant is 50 kN/m and the cross-sectional area of the
piston is 0.05m2, determine the final pressure of the gas in the
cylinder.

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 Intially the spring exerts no force on it
𝑷𝒊 𝒈𝒂𝒔 ∗ 𝑨 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨 So 𝑷𝒊 𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 101.325 kPa

The gas is heated till the volume is doubled. During this process the force exerted by the spring is proportional to the
displacement of the piston. If the spring constant is k = 50 kN/m 𝑭𝒔 = 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒌𝒙
After heating
𝑷𝒇 ∗ 𝑨 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨 + 𝒌𝒙
𝑷𝒇 ∗ 𝑨 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∗ 𝑨 𝑭𝒔 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒙
𝑷𝒇 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 +
𝑨
𝒌𝑽
𝑷𝒇 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 +
𝑨∗𝑨
∆𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉0
2𝑉 − 𝑉 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑙 + 𝑥 − 𝐴𝑙 𝟓𝟎∗𝟎.𝟏
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 +
𝑉 𝟎.𝟎𝟓∗𝟎.𝟎𝟓
𝑥=
𝐴
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𝑷𝒇 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒑𝒂 51
A reference body is required to measure the temperature. Certain property of the reference body which changes
with the temperature is to be consider. The reference body is known as thermometer and the selected property is
known as thermometric property.

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• Fahrenheit (F)
Introduced in 1724
Defined by 2 fixed points based on the
properties of water (32-freezing point and
212-boiling point)
First modern thermometer (hg)
• Celsius (℃)
Introduced in1742
Defined by setting melting point/ freezing
of water to 0 ℃ and Boiling point to 100 ℃
Absolute zero in Celsius is -273.15℃
• Kelvin
Introduced in 1954
Defined by one standard fixed point i.e
triple point of water (273.16K)
Zero point set to absolute zero
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• A easily reproducible state of an arbitrarily
selected standard system is called fixed point
• Before 1954, two fixed point were considered to
design the thermometer. The melting and boiling
point of water
• After 1954, one standard fixed point was
considered to design the thermometer. The triple
point of water
• Ice point : The temperature at which a mixture
of ice and water are in equilibrium at a pressure of
one atmosphere.
• Steam Point : The temperature at which water
vapor condenses at a pressure of one atmosphere
• Triple point of water : The temperature and
pressure at which a substance can exist in
equilibrium in the liquid, solid, and gaseous
states.
53
21-May-22 8:47 AM 54
 • 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 • 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖
• 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏 • 𝑥𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑠

• 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑎𝑥𝑠 + 𝑏

(𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖 ) (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖 ) 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑎= 𝑏 = 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑏 = 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖
(𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 ) (𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖

The relationship between oC and oF For oF

For oC 𝑡𝑖 = 32 𝑡𝑠 = 212
𝑡𝑖 = 0 𝑡𝑠 = 100
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑜
𝑡 𝑐 = 0 + 100 − 0 𝑡 𝑜 𝐹 = 32 + 212 − 32
𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑥−𝑥𝑖 𝑥−𝑥𝑖
𝑡 𝑜 𝑐 = 100 ………..(1) 𝑡 𝑜 𝐹 = 32 + 180 ………..(2)
𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 𝑜 𝑐 𝑡 𝑜 𝐹 − 32 𝑜𝑐
5 𝑜
= = 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝐹 − 32
𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 100 180 9

21-May-22 8:47 AM 55
Problem :
A new temperature scale in degree N is desired with freezing point at 100 o N and boiling point 400o N.
Establish a correlation between degrees Celsius and degrees N.

𝑡=𝑎𝑥+𝑏 where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constant.

Substituting the values of ice point and steam point in this correlation.
We get
100 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏 , 400 = 𝑎𝑥𝑠 + 𝑏
300 300
𝑎= 𝑏 = 100 − 𝑥𝑖
(𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖 ) (𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖 )

300 300
𝑡°𝑁 = 𝑥 + 100 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑥−𝑥𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖
= 300 + 100 … … … (1) 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖
𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖
𝑥−𝑥𝑖
𝑡℃ = 100………(2)
𝑥𝑠 −𝑥𝑖
From 1 and 2 𝑡°𝑁 = 3 𝑡℃+100
21-May-22 8:47 AM 56
 Check for Property
Let z as a function of x and y Z=Z(x , y)

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑒 𝑀 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝑥

21-May-22 8:47 AM 57
Pdv is work done and we know work done is a path function

21-May-22 8:47 AM 58
21-May-22 8:47 AM 59
Q2 Given Pv=RT, Determine whether the following quantities can be used as properties or not:
𝑑𝑇 𝑃𝑑𝑣
+
𝑇 𝑣
𝑃𝑣 𝑃 𝑅𝑇
• 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑆𝑜 𝑇 = , =
𝑅 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑅 𝑅𝑇
so the differential equation become 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑣
𝑃𝑣 𝑣2
𝜕𝑀 −𝑅 𝜕𝑁 𝑅
= and =
𝜕𝑣 𝑃𝑣 2 𝜕𝑇 𝑣2
So this one cannot be used as a property.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 60
21-May-22 8:47 AM 61
21-May-22 8:47 AM 62
 𝑐 𝑑𝑇 𝑐 𝑇𝑑𝑉
2.5 A student wrote the differential of pressure of an ideal gas as 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑉 − 𝑉
Where c is a constant and V,T are vol. and temp. Did he write the differential equitation correctly ?

21-May-22 8:47 AM 63
 Explain the continuum concept ?
The concept of continuum assumes continuous and uniform
distribution of within the system with no empty space.
The Knudsen number (Kn) is a dimensionless number defined as the
ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative
physical length scale.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 64
 PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

21-May-22 8:47 AM 65
What is Pure Substances?
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout
is called a pure substance.
Example :Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide
It can exist more than one phase.
Example :Ice & liquid water or steam and liquid water
.
A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds
also qualifies as a pure substance as long as the mixture is
homogeneous.
Example : Air

21-May-22 8:47 AM 66
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
OF PURE SUBSTANCES
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous
throughout in both chemical composition and physical structure.
A system can contain one or more phases.
There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure substance
coexist in equilibrium.
Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the boiler and the condenser
of a steam power plant.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 67
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
• Consider a piston–cylinder device containing liquid water at 200 C and
1 atm pressure. At 1 atm and 20°C, water
exists in the liquid phase
(compressed liquid).
State 1
Compressed liquid ( Subcooled liquid ):
Under these conditions, water exists
in the liquid phase, and it is called a
compressed liquid, or a subcooled
liquid, meaning that it is not about to
vaporize.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 68
State 2
Saturated liquid state : At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water
exists as a liquid that is ready to
vaporize (saturated liquid).
As more heat is transferred, the temperature keeps rising
until it reaches 1000 C.

At this point water is still a liquid, but any heat addition

will cause some of the liquid to vaporize.

That is, a phase-change process from liquid to vapor is

about to take place

A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a saturated

liquid. Therefore, state 2 is a saturated liquid state.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 70
State 3
Saturated liquid–vapor mixture:
As more heat is transferred,
part of the saturated liquid
Temperature stops rising until the vaporizes (saturated liquid–
vapor mixture).
liquid is completely vaporized.
During a boiling process, the only the
volume increase

Midway about the vaporization

line (state 3, Fig. 3–7), the
cylinder contains equal amounts
of liquid and vapor.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 71
State 4 Saturated vapor :
• Continue transferring heat, the vaporization process
continues until the last drop of liquid is vaporized
• At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with vapor that
is on the borderline of the liquid phase.
• Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the
vapor to condense (phase change from vapor to liquid).
• A vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated
vapor.
• A substance at states between 2 and 4 is
referred to as a saturated liquid–vapor mixture
At 1 atm pressure, the
temperature remains constant at
100°C until the last drop of liquid
is vaporized (saturated vapor).
21-May-22 8:47 AM 72
 State 5 Superheated vapor: As more heat is transferred, the
temperature of the vapor starts
to rise (superheated vapor).
• Further transfer of heat results in an increase in both the
temperature and the specific volume.
• if we transfer some heat from the vapor, the temperature
may drop somewhat but no condensation will take place as
long as the temperature remains above
1000 C (for P = 1 atm).
• A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor) is called a superheated vapor.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 73
 • The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase is called
the saturation temperature .
corresponding pressure is known as
saturated pressure.
• For water at 1 atm(1 bar) pressure
the saturation temperature is
99.670c or vice-versa.
• If the temp. of liquid is lower than
the saturation temp , for the existing
pressure is called as sub-cooled
liquid or compressed liquid.
• When the vapor is at a temp.
greater than the saturation temp, it
is called as super heated vapour.
A vapour that is not about to
21-May-22 8:47 AM
condensed. 74
 220.9 atm

373.95

21-May-22 8:47 AM 75
 •A state at which a phase change begins or
ends is called a saturation state.
•If all of the saturated liquid states are
connected, the saturated liquid line is
established.
• If all of the saturated vapor states are
connected, the saturated vapor line is
established.
• These two lines intersect at the critical point
• The region between the saturated liquid line
and the saturated vapor line is called by these
terms: saturated liquid-vapor mixture region,
wet region (i.e., a mixture of saturated liquid
and saturated vapor), two-phase region, or
just the saturation region.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 76
•The term critical point is
defined as a point at which
saturated liquid and vapor
state are identical.

•At critical pressure and

pressure above critical
pressure there is not a
distinct phase change
process and at all times
there is only one phase
present.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 77
 P2 = 1000 kPa

• The region to the left of

P1 = 100 kPa

the saturated liquid line

179.88oC and below the critical
temperature is called the
99.61oC compressed liquid region.
• The region to the right of
the saturated vapor line
is called the superheated
region.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 78
 A large amount of energy to melt a solid or vaporize a liquid. The
amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change
process is called the latent heat.
 The amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent
heat of fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released
during freezing.
 The amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the
latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released
during condensation.
 Latent heats depend on the temperature or pressure at which the
phase change occurs.
 At 1 atm pressure,
• The latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg
• The latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.
 Steam Tables
A steam table is an essential tool for any engineer working with steam.

It's typically used to determine saturated steam temperature from steam pressure, or the vice versa
i.e pressure from saturated steam temperature.

In addition to pressure and temperature, these tables usually include other related values such as
specific enthalpy (h) and specific volume (v), specific entropy (s). .

The data found in a steam table always refers to steam at a particular saturation point, also
known as the boiling point.

This is the point where water (liquid) and steam (gas) can coexist at the same temperature and
pressure.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 80
 The subscript f is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid, and the subscript g to denote the
properties of saturated vapor. Another subscript commonly used is fg, which denotes the difference
between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same property.

These symbols are commonly used in thermodynamics and originated from German.

For example,

21-May-22 8:47 AM 81
21-May-22 8:47 AM 82
 vf Liquid phase and vg Vapor phase of Specific volume

21-May-22 8:47 AM 83
 Property Table

 For example if the pressure

and specific volume are
specified, there may be three
conditions: For the given
pressure,

21-May-22 8:47 AM 84
Temp., T Sat. Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
C Press., Psat m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK
kPa
Sat. liquid, Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Evap., Sat.
vf vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg sfg vapor,
vg uf ug hf sg
0.01 0.6117 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

5 0.8725 0.001000 147.03 21.02 2360.8 2381.8 21.02 2489.1 2510.1 0.0763 8.9487 9.0249

10 1.228 0.001000 106.32 42.02 2346.6 2388.7 42.02 2477.2 2519.2 0.1511 8.7488 8.8999

15 1.706 0.001001 77.885 62.98 2332.5 2395.5 62.98 2465.4 2528.3 0.2245 8.5559 8.7803

20 2.339 0.001002 57.762 83.91 2318.4 2402.3 83.91 2453.5 2537.4 0.2965 8.3696 8.6661

25 3.170 0.001003 43.340 104.83 2304.3 2409.1 104.83 2441.7 2546.5 0.3672 8.1895 8.5567

30 4.247 0.001004 32.879 125.73 2290.2 2415.9 125.74 2429.8 2555.6 0.4368 8.0152 8.4520

35 5.629 0.001006 25.205 146.63 2276.0 2422.7 146.64 2417.9 2564.6 0.5051 7.8466 8.3517

40 7.385 0.001008 19.515 167.53 2261.9 2429.4 167.53 2406.0 2573.5 0.5724 7.6832 8.2556

45 9.595 0.001010 15.251 188.43 2247.7 2436.1 188.44 2394.0 2582.4 0.6386 7.5247 8.1633

50 12.35 0.001012 12.026 209.33 2233.4 2442.7 209.34 2382.0 2591.3 0.7038 7.3710 8.0748

55 15.76 0.001015 9.5639 230.24 2219.1 2449.3 230.26 2369.8 2600.1 0.7680 7.2218 7.9898

85 57.87 0.001032 2.8261 355.96 2131.9 2487.8 356.02 2295.3 2651.4 1.1346 6.4089 7.5435

90 70.18 0.001036 2.3593 376.97 2117.0 2494.0 377.04 2282.5 2659.6 1.1929 6.2853 7.4782

95 84.61 0.001040 1.9808 398.00 2102.0 2500.1 398.09 2269.6 2667.6 1.2504 6.1647 7.4151

100 101.42 0.001043 1.6720 419.06 2087.0 2506.0 419.17 2256.4 2675.6 1.3072 6.0470 7.3542

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

360 18666 0.001895 0.006950 1726.16 625.7 2351.9 1761.53 720.1 2481.6 3.9165 1.1373 5.0537

365 19822 0.002015 0.006009 1777.22 526.4 2303.6 1817.16 605.5 2422.7 4.0004 0.9489 4.9493

370 21044 0.002217 0.004953 1844.53 385.6 2230.1 1891.19 443.1 2334.3 4.1119 0.6890 4.8009

2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070

373.95 22064 0.003106 0.003106
21-May-22 8:47 AM 85
 Saturated water-Pressure table
Press. Sat. Temp., Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
P kPa Tsat C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

Sat. Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. liquid, Evap., Sat.
liquid, vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg vapor, sf sfg vapor,
vf vg uf ug hf hg sg

0.6117 0.01 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

1.0 6.97 0.001000 129.19 29.30 2355.2 2384.5 29.30 2484.4 2513.7 0.1059 8.8690 8.9749

1.5 13.02 0.001001 87.964 54.69 2338.1 2392.8 54.69 2470.1 2524.7 0.1956 8.6314 8.8270

2.0 17.50 0.001001 66.990 73.43 2325.5 2398.9 73.43 2459.5 2532.9 0.2606 8.4621 8.7227

2.5 21.08 0.001002 54.242 88.42 2315.4 2403.8 88.42 2451.0 2539.4 0.3118 8.3302 8.6421

3.0 24.08 0.001003 45.654 100.98 2306.9 2407.9 100.98 2443.9 2544.8 0.3543 8.2222 8.5765

4.0 28.96 0.001004 34.791 121.39 2293.1 2414.5 121.39 2432.3 2553.7 0.4224 8.0510 8.4734

5.0 32.87 0.001005 28.185 137.75 2282.1 2419.8 137.75 2423.0 2560.7 0.4762 7.9176 8.3938

7.5 40.29 0.001008 19.233 168.74 2261.1 2429.8 168.75 2405.3 2574.0 0.5763 7.6738 8.2501

10 45.81 0.001010 14.670 191.79 2245.4 2437.2 191.81 2392.1 2583.9 0.6492 7.4996 8.1488

15 53.97 0.001014 10.020 225.93 2222.1 2448.0 225.94 2372.3 2598.3 0.7549 7.2522 8.0071

20 60.06 0.001017 7.6481 251.40 2204.6 2456.0 251.42 2357.5 2608.9 0.8320 7.0752 7.9073

25 64.96 0.001020 6.2034 271.93 2190.4 2462.4 271.96 2345.5 2617.5 0.8932 6.9370 7.8302

30 69.09 0.001022 5.2287 289.24 2178.5 2467.7 289.27 2335.3 2624.6 0.9441 6.8234 7.7675

40 75.86 0.001026 3.9933 317.58 2158.8 2476.3 317.62 2318.4 2636.1 1.0261 6.6430 7.6691

50 81.32 0.001030 3.2403 340.49 2142.7 2483.2 340.54 2304.7 2645.2 1.0912 6.5019 7.5931

75 91.76 0.001037 2.2172 384.36 2111.8 2496.1 384.44 2278.0 2662.4 1.2132 6.2426 7.4558

100 99.61 0.001043 1.6941 417.40 2088.2 2505.6 417.51 2257.5 2675.0 1.3028 6.0562 7.3589

125 105.97 0.001048 1.3750 444.23 2068.8 2513.0 444.36 2240.6 2684.9 1.3741 5.9100 7.2841

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

20,000 365.75 0.002038 0.005862 1785.84 509.0 2294.8 1826.59 585.5 2412.1 4.0146 0.9164 4.9310

21,000 369.83 0.002207 0.004994 1841.62 391.9 2233.5 1887.97 450.4 2338.4 4.1071 0.7005 4.8076

22,000 373.71 0.002703 0.003644 1951.65 140.8 2092.4 2011.12 161.5 2172.6 4.2942 0.2496 4.5439

0.003106 0.003106 2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070

22,064
21-May-22373.95
8:47 AM 86
EXAMPLE 1 Pressure of Saturated Liquid in a Tank
A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated liquid water at 90oC.
Determine the pressure in the tank and the volume of the tank.

SOLUTION A rigid tank contains saturated liquid water. The pressure and
volume of the tank are to be determined.

Analysis The state of the saturated liquid water is shown on a T-v diagram.
Since it is Saturated Liquid conditions exist in the tank so the state should
be state 2, and the pressure must be the saturation pressure at 90oC .

So we have to search in the temperature based steam table at 90oC

P = Psat @ 90oC = 70.104 kPa (pressure in the tank)

The specific volume of the saturated liquid at 90oC is 0.001036

v = vf @ 90oC = 0.001036 m3/kg

Then the total volume of the tank becomes V = mv = (50 kg)(0.001036 m3/kg) = 0.0518 m3
21-May-22 8:47 AM 87
EXAMPLE2: Temperature of Saturated Vapor in a Cylinder
A piston–cylinder device contains 0.056 m3 of saturated water vapor at
350 kPa pressure. Determine the temperature and the mass of the vapor
inside the cylinder.
SOLUTION A cylinder contains saturated water vapor. The
temperature and the mass of vapor are to be determined.
Analysis The state of the saturated vapor is shown on a T-v diagram.
Since it is Saturated Vapor conditions exist in the tank so the state should be
state 4, and the Temperature must be the saturation Temperature at 350 kPa .
So we have to search in the pressure based steam table at 350 kPa

T = Tsat @ 350 kpa = 138.87 oC (Temperature in the tank)

The specific volume of the saturated vapor at 350 kPa is = vg = 0.5241 m3/kg

𝑉 0.056
Then the mass of water vapor inside the cylinder = m= = = 0.106 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.5241
21-May-22 8:47 AM 88
EXAMPLE 3–3 Volume and Energy Change during Evaporation
A mass of 200 g of saturated liquid water is completely
vaporized at a constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine
(a)Temperature in the tank
(b) the volume change
(c) the amount of energy transferred to the water.
SOLUTION Saturated liquid water is vaporized at constant pressure. The
volume change and the energy transferred are to be determined.

Analysis (a) The process described is illustrated on a T-v diagram in. The
volume change per unit mass during a vaporization process is vfg, which is
the difference between vg and vf. Reading these values from pressure
based Table at 100 kPa

T = Tsat @ 100 kpa = 99.63 oC (Temperature in the tank)

3
𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 = 1.6941 − 0.001043 = 1.6931 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

(b) ∆𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.2 ∗ 1.6931 = 0.3386 𝑚3

21-May-22 8:47 AM 89
(c) The amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of a substance at a given pressure is
the enthalpy of vaporization at that pressure, which is ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2257.5 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
for water at 100 kPa. Thus, the amount of energy transferred is

𝑚ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 0.2 ∗ 2257.96 = 451.59 kJ

21-May-22 8:47 AM 90
 Now Let we have to find the state at 100 kPa and 99.63 oC

As the saturation temp of 100kpa is 99.63 oC the state lies at any

point between state 2 and state 4.

So the quality of the mixture is needed to determine the state.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 91
 Conditions with the given specific volume (𝑣)
𝑖𝑓 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑓
 The state is in the compressed liquid region, and the compressed liquid table is
used to find the properties. (or using saturation temperature table) or saturation
pressure table and all vf data can be used.
𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑔
 The state is in the saturation region, means its a mixture and either the saturation
temperature table or the saturation pressure table is used.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑔 < 𝑣
 The state is in the superheated region and the superheated table is used.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓
 The state is in the saturated liquid.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣
 The state is in the saturated vapor.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 92
Quality and Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture :
During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part
vapor. That is, it is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. To
analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions of the liquid
and vapor phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property
called the quality x as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the
mixture (it is also known as ( Dryness fraction of the steam )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝑥= =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓

• Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It

has no meaning in the compressed liquid or
superheated vapor regions.
• Its value is between 0 and 1.
• The quality of a system that consists of saturated
liquid is 0 (or 0 percent),
• The quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor
is 1 (or 100 percent).

21-May-22 8:47 AM 93
Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquid–vapor mixture. The volume occupied by saturated liquid is Vf,
and the volume occupied by saturated vapor is Vg. The total volume V is the sum of the two:
V  V f  Vg
m  m f  mg
V  mv , V f  m f v f , Vg  mg v g

mv  m f v f  mg v g
mf v f mg v g
v 
m m
Recall the definition of quality x
mg mg
x 
m m f  mg
Then mf m  mg
  1 x
m m
Note, quantity 1- x is often given the name moisture. The specific volume of the
saturated mixture becomes v  (1  x)v f  xvg

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥(ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 )
21-May-22 8:47 AM 94
Calculate the mass of 15m3 of water (mixed phase liquid-vapor) at
500kPa and quality of 50%.
𝑉 = 15 𝑚3 Quality of 50%. = dryness fraction = x = 0.5 ( its a mixture )

𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 500 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 0.001093 𝑚3 & 0.3748 𝑚

3
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

3
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) = 0.001093 + 0.5(0.3748 − 0.001093) = 0.188 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑉 15
Then the mass of liquid−vapor mixture inside the cylinder = m= = = 80 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.188

21-May-22 8:47 AM 95
Calculate the specific volume and the specific enthalpy of steam at 35%
quality and pressure of 20kPa.
P=20 kPa = 0.2bar , x=0.35 Quality of 35 %. = dryness fraction = x = 0.35 ( its a mixture )

𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 0.001017 𝑚3 & 7.65 𝑚

3
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

ℎ𝑓 & ℎ𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 251.31 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔& 2609.96 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔

3
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) = 0.001017 + 0.35(7.65 − 0.001017) = 2.69 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥(ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 ) = 251.31 + 0.35(2609.96 − 251.31) = 1078 𝑘𝑔

21-May-22 8:47 AM 96
EXAMPLE 4 Pressure and Volume of a Saturated Mixture
A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90oC. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid
form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank
and (b) the volume of the tank.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 97
Another way or Method 2
A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90oC. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid
form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank
and (b) the volume of the tank.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 98
 Determine the saturated pressure, specific volume, internal
energy and enthalpy for saturated water vapor at 45oC and 50oC.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 99
 Determine the saturated pressure, specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy for
saturated water vapor at 47⁰ C.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 100

 Solution:

 Extract data from steam table

T Psat v u h
45 9.5953 15.251 2436.1 2582.4 Interpolation Scheme for Psat

47 Psat v u h  Interpolation for Psat

Psat  9.5953 47  45
50 12.352 12.026 2442.7 2591.3 
12.352  9.5953 50  45
Psat @ 47  10.698 kPa

101
21-May-22 8:47 AM
Example Is v  v f ? No  Find the quality
Determine the enthalpy of 1.5 Is v f  v  v g ? Yes
kg of water contained in a v  v f  x (v g  v f )
volume of 1.2 m3 at 200 kPa. Is v g  v ? No v  vf
x
vg  v f
Solution:
0.8  0.001061
 Specific volume for water 
0.8858  0.001061
Volume 12 . m3 m3  0.903 (What does this mean?)
v   0.8
mass 15
. kg kg  The enthalpy
 From table @ 200kPa or 2 bar h  h f  x h fg
v f  0.001061 m
3
 504.7  (0.903)(2201.6)
kg
kJ
vg  0.8858 m3
kg  2492.7
kg

102
21-May-22 8:47 AM
 P (bar) T 0C v (m3/Kg) X(%) Degree of h( KJ/Kg) s (KJ/Kg K) Status
Super Heat(0C)

Q1 35 25.22

Q2 0.001044 419.04

Q3 212.42 90

Q4 1 6.104

Q5 10 320

Q6 5 0.4646

Q7 4 143.63 0.44

Q8 20 50

Q9 500 3445.3

Q 10 15 7.2690

21-May-22 8:47 AM 103

 P (bar) T 0C v (m3/Kg) X(%) Degree of h( KJ/Kg) s (KJ/Kg K) Status
Super Heat(0C)

Q1 0.05628 35
35 25.22
25.22 100 ________ 2565.3 8.353 Saturated
Vapor
Q2 1.0135 100 0.001044
0.001044 0 __________ 419.04
419.04 1.3069 Saturated Liquid

Q3 20 212.42 0.089785 90 ____________ 2610.42 5.95155 Sat. liq. vapor

mixture
Q
Q 44 1
1 99.63 1.34254 79.24 _________ 2206.7 6.104
6.104 Sat. liq. vapor
mixture

Q
Q55 10
10 320
320 0.2678 Undefined 140.09 3093.9 7.1962 Super Heated
Vapor
Q
Q66 5
5 240 0.4646
0.4646 undefined 88.14 2939.9 7.2307 Superheated

Q7 4 143.63 0.44 95.123 _______ 2634.47 6.6462 Sat. liq. vapor

mixture

Q8 20 262.42 0.11505 Undefined 50 2933.653 6.60416 superheated

Q9 40 500 0.08643 undefined 249.6 3445.3 7.0901 superheated

Q 10 15 400 0.20300 Undefined 201.68 3255.8 7.2690 superheated

21-May-22 8:47 AM 104

 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑔

21-May-22 8:47 AM 105

Q2
Dry and saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant volume
until the pressure becomes 1 bar. What is the quality of steam P = 10 bar
after cooling? What are the initial and final temp of the steam?
SOLUTION :
P = 1bar
Initial Condition : Dry and saturated steam ( saturated Vapor )
Pressure 10 bar
Process : cooled at constant volume
Final Condition : pressure becomes 1 bar.
Findings : the initial and final temp of the steam
The initial specific volume = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑔 @ 10 bar = 0.1944 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔
The final specific volume = 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 = 0.1944 m3/kg
We have to check the specific volume with 𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 @ 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠 .

𝐴𝑡 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001043 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 1.694 m3/kg 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) initial temp =179.91o c @ saturation temp 10bar
𝑥 = 0.1142= 11.42%,
Final temp =99.63o c @ saturation temp 1 bar
𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑔 so the final condition will be a mixture.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 106
Saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant pressure until it’s
dryness fraction becomes 50%. What are the change in temp.
P = 10 bar
and specific vol.

SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : Dry and saturated steam ( saturated Vapor )
Pressure 10 bar
Process : cooled at constant Pressure
Final Condition : until it’s dryness fraction becomes 50%
Findings : change in temp. and specific vol.
𝑣 𝑣𝑔

The initial specific volume = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑔 @ 10 bar = 0.1944 m3/kg

The final specific volume = 𝑣2

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
x= 0.5
𝑣 = 0.001127 + 0.5 0.19444 − .001127 = 0.0977m3/kg
𝐴𝑡 10 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001127 m3/kg change in specific vol = 0.19444 − 0.0977= 0.09674 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 0.19444 m3/kg

change in temp. = 0
21-May-22 8:47 AM 107
 Q4
Water at 1200C with a quality of 25% has its temperature raised 200C in a constant volume process. What
is the new quality and pressure?
SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : its a mixture x = 0.25
Process : heated at constant volume process
Final Condition : until temperature raised 200C that means final temp. T = 140oC
is 140oC
Findings : new quality and pressure.
Tsat = 120oC
𝐴𝑡 1200C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001060 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 0.8919 m3/kg 𝑣

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0.001060 + 0.25 0.8919 − .001060 = 0.22377m3/kg
As it’s a constant volume process initial sp. vol = final sp. vol= 0.22377m3/kg
𝐴𝑡 1400C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001080 m3/kg 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑔 = 0.5089 m3/kg 𝑥 = 0.4385= 43.85%,
𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0.22377m3/kg so final state is also a mixture Pressure= Psat= 3.613 bar @ 1400C
21-May-22 8:47 AM 108
Water at 1200C, 200 kPa with a quality of 25% has its temperature
raised 200 C in a constant pressure process. What is the new
quality and volume?

21-May-22 8:47 AM 109

 Q9
A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5 m3 contains 15 kg of saturated
liquid- vapour mixture of water at 750C. Now the water is
slowly heated. Determine the temperature at which the liquid
in the tank is completely vaporized. TFinal
SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : saturated liquid- vapour mixture Tsat = 75oC
Temperature 750C
Process : heated at constant Volume (rigid tank)
Final Condition : liquid in the tank is completely vaporized.
𝑣 = 0.166
Findings : liquid in the tank is completely vaporized.

At 750C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001026 m3/kg 𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝. 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑔(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) = 𝑣 = 0.166
𝑣𝑔 = 4.131m3/kg
2.5
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑔 data to find 0.166
𝑣= = 0.166 m3/kg
15
So at temp 187oc (ANS)

21-May-22 8:47 AM 110

Q 20
A 0.3 –m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid –
vapor mixture of water at 1500 C. The water is now
heated until it reaches the critical state. Determine the
mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the
liquid at the initial state. Ans: 96.10 kg, 0.105 m3

21-May-22 8:47 AM 111

Q 21
A piston – cylinder device initially contains steam at 3.5 MPa,
superheated by 50 C, Now, steam loses heat to the
surroundings and the piston moves down hitting a set of stops
at which point the cylinder contains saturated liquid water. The
cooling continues until the cylinder contains water at 2000 C.
Determine (a) the initial temperature, (b) the enthalpy change
per unit mass of the steam by the time the piston first hits the
stops and (c) the final pressure and the quality (if mixture).
Ans : 247.60 C, – 1771 kj/kg, 1555 kPa, 0.0006.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 112

21-May-22 8:47 AM 114
21-May-22 8:47 AM 115
 Pure substance (normal
substance) other than
water:

21-May-22 8:47 AM 116

 Pure substance water:

21-May-22 8:47 AM 117

21-May-22 8:47 AM 118
21-May-22 8:47 AM 119
 P-T Diagram

21-May-22 8:47 AM 121

 0.6113
kPa

0.01oc

21-May-22 8:47 AM 122

21-May-22 8:47 AM 123
If the pure substance is heated at low pressure until its triple point (pressure and temperature at which three phases of a pure
substance coexist) is reached and while heating the vapor pressure of a solid is measured at various temperatures and then
plotted on a p-T diagram, shown in Fig. These plotted points represent the coexistence of solid and vapor and the line through
these points is called sublimation curve.
If the pure substance at triple point is further heated until the critical point is reached and while heating the vapor pressure of a
liquid is measured at various temperatures and then plotted on a p-T diagram, the results will appear as shown in Fig.. The
results of these plotted points represent the coexistence of liquid and vapor and the line through these points is
called vaporization curve.
On the other hand, if the substance at the triple point is compressed until
there is no vapor left on the resulting mixture of solid and liquid phase and
the pressure on the resulting mixture of solid and liquid is increased further,
the temperature will have to be changed for equilibrium to exist between
the solid and the liquid. Measurements of these pressures and temperatures
give rise to a third curve on the p-T diagram, starting at the triple point and
continuing indefinitely. This is fusion curve

TRIPLE POINT
The pressure and temperature at which three phases of a pure substance coexist is called triple point. The triple point
is merely the point of intersection of the sublimation and vaporization curves, It has been found that on a ‘p-T’ diagram
the triple point is represented by a point (Fig. 19.6) and on a ‘p-v’ diagram it is a line, and on a ‘u-v’ diagram it is a
triangle. In the case of ordinary water, the triple point is at a pressure of 4.58 mm Hg and a temperature of 0.01OC.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 124
 P-v diagram for water (solid-liquid-vapor region)

21-May-22 8:47 AM 125

p-V diagram for water (solid-liquid-vapor region)
If we heat ice at different vapor pressures and note down the corresponding change in volumes, the saturation state points
for solid, liquid and vapor (state from which a change of phase may occur without change of pressure and temperature)
for different pressures may be obtained on a p-V diagram.
By joining the saturated solid states at various pressures, a saturated solid line ‘ECA’ is obtained. Similarly, by joining
all the saturated liquid states with respect to solidification and by joining all the saturated liquid states with respect to
vaporization, saturated liquid lines ‘FG’ and ‘HG’ are obtained. Finally, by joining all the vapor states at various
pressures saturated vapor line ‘HB’ is obtained and a phase equilibrium diagram of water on p-v co-ordinates will be
formed as shown in Fig.
The horizontal portion ‘AB’ of constant pressure or temperature in Fig.
19.1 represents the transition from saturated solid directly into saturated
vapor called sublimation. There is obviously one such line ‘CGD’ in this
figure, the part ‘CG’ of which is the boundary between the liquid-vapor
region (L+V) and the solid-vapor region (S+V) and the remaining part
‘GD’ of which is boundary between the solid-liquid region (S+L) and the
solid-vapor region (S+V). This ‘CGD’ line is called the triple
point. Triple point is the only point at which three phases of a pure
substance coexist. In the case of ordinary water , the triple point is at a
pressure of 4.58 mm of Hg and a temperature of 0.01OC, and the line
extends from a volume of 1 cm3/g (saturated liquid) to a volume of
206000 cm3/g (saturated vapor)
21-May-22 8:47 AM 126
 The State Postulate

The state of the system is described by its properties.

Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume some values
automatically.
The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is given by the state postulate

The state of a simple compressible system is completely

specified by two independent, intensive properties.

The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix the state.

Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held constant.

Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and together they can fix the
state of a simple compressible system.

Thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system.

Otherwise an additional property needs to be specified for each effect that is significant.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 127

 Ideal Gas

21-May-22 8:47 AM 128

All the gas will perform as an Ideal gas when the pressure is small
relative to the critical pressure and/or the temperature T is large
relative to the critical temperature.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 129

21-May-22 8:47 AM 130
 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
This is Known as the ideal gas equation of state
Units
P = kPa
V = m3
m= kg
T= ok
R= Gas contact =kJ/kg K Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg K

21-May-22 8:47 AM 131

 Universal gas constant

21-May-22 8:47 AM 132

The equation of state in terms of no. of moles

21-May-22 8:47 AM 133

 Interaction Between System and Surrounding

Mass Transfer
Interaction
between
system and
surrounding Heat

Energy Transfer

Work

• HEAT – Driving force is temperature

• WORK – Driving force other than temperature.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 134
21-May-22 8:47 AM 135
 Sign convention :
If the work is done by the system on the surroundings, e.g., when a fluid expands
pushing a piston outwards, the work is said to be positive.
i.e., Work output of the system = + W

If the work is done on the system by the surroundings, e.g., when a force is applied
to a rotating handle, or to a piston to compress a fluid, the work is said to be
negative. i.e., Work input to system = – W

Heat received by the system = + Q

Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 136

 Work Done in a Qausi Equilibrium Process

𝐴𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 ∶

21-May-22 8:47 AM
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 137
1
 Displacement Work

Force acting on the piston = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

= 𝑝∗𝐴
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑝 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
This work is known as displacement work or pdV work corresponding to the
elemental displacement dx. To obtain the total work done in a process, this
elemental work must be added from the initial state to the final state.
Mathematically, .
2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1
21-May-22 8:47 AM 138
 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒅𝑽 ?

• The system should be closed.

• Displacement of the boundary must be there.
• Process must be quasi-static.
• Relationship between ‘p’ & ‘V’ must be known.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 139

 Work Done on Different Reversible Process
Constant Pressure Process

Figure shows a piston cylinder

arrangement containing a fluid. Let the fluid
expands such that the pressure of the fluid
remains constant throughout the process.
The mathematical expression for
displacement work can be obtained as
follows: 2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
1

This expression shows that the area

under a curve in a p-V diagram gives work
done in the process. Figure shows the process in a p-V
diagram.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 140

Constant volume process

Consider a gas contained in a

rigid vessel being heated. Since there
is no change in volume.

A constant volume process is the vertical path

dV = 0 in the P-V plane

up if heat is added and down if heat is removed.

Because dV = 0
The work done is dW = P dV = 0

21-May-22 8:47 AM 141

 Constant Temperature Process:

𝑜𝑟
Vf Vf
mRT Vf Vf
V PdV  V V dV  mRT ln Vi  piVi ln Vi
i i

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 Polytropic Process = 𝒑𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪 where n is a constant

C
p n
V

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 P1V1  P2V2
V2 V2
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
V PdV  1V PdV  n  1
𝑚𝑅(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
1 1
Work done =
𝑛−1

P1V1
(1 )
P2V2
n 1 P1V1

1 Polytropic Process = 𝒑𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪

𝑉2 𝑝1 𝑛
=
𝑉1 𝑝2
𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
Work done =
1 𝑛−1
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑛 𝑛−1
1− ∗ 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑛
𝑛−1 𝑝1 𝑝2 = 1−
𝑛−1 𝑝1
𝑛−1
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑛
𝑚𝑅(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Work done = 1− =
𝑛−1 𝑝1 𝑛−1
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 Reversible Adiabatic Process

A reversible process during which, the system and the surroundings

do not exchange any heat across the boundary is known as reversible
adiabatic process. For such a process, pressure and volume variation is
governed by the law :
𝑝𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 p2V2  p1V1   p1V1  p2V2 

W    
   1    1 

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 147
 First Law of Thermodynamics

21-May-22 8:47 AM 148

 The Joules Experiment

𝑸𝟐−𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆

system to surrounding
𝑾𝟏−𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆
If friction in mechanism
is negligible, the work
done by the paddle
wheel on the water
equals the change of
potential energy of the
weights
21-May-22 8:47 AM 149
 It has been found that the amount of this work transferred is always
proportional to heat transferred.

The proportionality constant “J” is called Joule’s equivalent or

mechanical equivalent of heat.

The symbol 𝛿𝑄, which is called the cyclic integral of the heat transfer,
represents the net heat transfer during the cycle, and 𝛿𝑊, the cyclic
integral of the work, represents the net work during the cycle.

When heat and work both are measured in SI unit is Joule, value of J = 1.
𝑊 =𝐽 𝑄
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
One calorie corresponds to the amount of heat that is needed to get
one gram of water from 14.5oC to 15.5o C
𝛿𝑊 = 𝐽 𝛿𝑄
1 Cal = 4.1840 J

This is the first law of

thermodynamics for a
closed system undergoing a
cycle.
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 Q : State First law of Thermodynamics for a closed system
undergoing a cycle.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 151

State First law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a process / a change of state.

From the first law of thermodynamics, we have 𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 − 𝐴 − 2 − 𝐵 − 1
2 1 2 1
𝛿𝑄𝐴 + 𝛿𝑄𝐵 = 𝛿𝑊𝐴 + 𝛿𝑊𝐵 1
1 2 1 2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 − 𝐶 − 2 − 𝐵 − 1
2 1 2 1
𝛿𝑄𝐶 + 𝛿𝑄𝐵 = 𝛿𝑊𝐶 + 𝛿𝑊𝐵 2
1 2 1 2

Subtracting equn 1 from 2

2 2 2 2
Let consider there is a change of 𝛿𝑄𝐶 − 𝛿𝑄𝐴 = 𝛿𝑊𝐶 − 𝛿𝑊𝐴
state from State 1 to state 2 by a 1 1 1 1
process path A or C 2 2 2 2
and return to the initial state by 𝛿𝑄𝐶 − 𝛿𝑊𝐶 = 𝛿𝑄𝐴 − 𝛿𝑊𝐴
path B 1 1 1 1

2 2
𝛿𝑄𝐶 − 𝛿𝑊𝐶 = 𝛿𝑄𝐴 − 𝛿𝑊𝐴
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 2 2
𝛿𝑄𝐶 − 𝛿𝑊𝐶 = 𝛿𝑄𝐴 − 𝛿𝑊𝐴
1 1

2 2
𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 𝐶 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 𝐴
1 1

Since A and C represent arbitrary processes between states 1 and 2, the quantity 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 is the same for
all processes between states 1 and 2. Therefore, 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 depends only on the initial and final states and
not on the path followed between the two states. We conclude that this is a point function / Exact differential /
Property of the system
𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝐸
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝐸 + 𝛿𝑊
The physical significance of the property E is that it represents all the energy of the system in the given
state

Because E is a property, its derivative is written dE. When Eqn is integrated from an initial state 1 to a final state 2,
we have
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝑄1−2 ) − (𝑊1−2 )

Write First law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a process.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 153
 The property E represents macroscopic energy includes Kinetic and potential Energy Whereas microscopic includes
energy in the molecular label.

E = Macroscopic energy (External ) + Microscopic energy (internal )

E = Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Internal energy

E = PE+ KE + U
U = Internal energy = Etranslational + Erorational + EVibrational + Enuclear + ⋯
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + +U
2
Since the terms comprising E are point functions, we can write
dE = dU + d(KE) + d(PE)

The first law of thermodynamics for a change of state may therefore be written

𝛿𝑄 = dU + d(KE) + d(PE) + 𝛿𝑊

In absence of Kinetic and potential energy it can be written as 𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝛿𝑊

21-May-22 8:47 AM
What are the different forms of energy? 154
 𝛿𝑄 = dE + 𝛿𝑊

𝛿𝑄 = dU + d(KE) + d(PE) + 𝛿𝑊

Integrating for a change of state from state 1 to state 2

𝑚𝑉22 𝑚𝑉12
𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + − + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
2 2

In absence of Kinetic and potential energy it can be written as

𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

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 Enthalpy

It is a combination property of internal energy and flow energy. Enthalpy is denoted as H.

OR

Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy (u) and product of pressure volume (pv).

Unit of Enthalpy = kJ
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝐻 𝑈 𝑃𝑉
= +
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

21-May-22 8:47 AM 156

Show that the heat transfer in a reversible constant pressure is equal
to change in enthalpy

Applying first law to a constant pressure process

𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Integrating for a change of state from state 1 to state 2

𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑉2 − 𝑃𝑉1

𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑈2 + 𝑃𝑉2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑉1

𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1

𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝒅𝑯 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚

𝛿𝑄 = dH

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Under what condition the change in enthalpy is equal to
heat transfer

21-May-22 8:47 AM 158

Prove that for an adiabatic process dh=VdP

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑉)

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝑄 = 0 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃

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Specific heats for ideal gases

• Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to rise the

temperature of the unit mass of the substance by 10 C

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑑𝑇
𝛿𝑄= amount of heat required
m = mass,
C = specific heat, and
dT = temperature rise.

1 𝛿𝑄
𝐶=
𝑚 𝑑𝑇
𝛿𝑞
𝐶= in Specific form
21-May-22 8:47 AM 𝑑𝑇 160
Define 𝑪𝑽 with the help internal energy and Temperature:

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a

substance by 𝟏𝒐 𝑪 in a reversible constant volume process.
1 𝛿𝑄
𝐶𝑉 =
𝑚 𝑑𝑇
Applying first law to a constant volume process

𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑈
1
Constant volume process 𝑑𝑉 = 𝟎 𝛿𝑄 = dU 𝐶𝑉 =
𝑚 𝛿𝑇
𝑉

𝑑𝑢 𝐶𝑉 is also defined as the change of internal energy of the

𝐶𝑉 = substance per unit change in temperature at constant volume.
𝛿𝑇 𝑉

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 Define 𝑪𝒑 with the help enthalpy and Temperature:

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a

substance by 𝟏𝒐 𝑪 in a reversible constant pressure process.
1 𝛿𝑄
𝐶𝑃 =
𝑚 𝑑𝑇

Applying first law to a constant volume process

𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

in a reversible constant pressure process. 𝛿𝑄 = dH

1 dH
𝐶𝑃 =
𝑚 𝑑𝑇

dh 𝐶P is also defined as the change of enthalpy of the substance

𝐶𝑃 =
𝑑𝑇 per unit change in temperature at constant Pressure.
21-May-22 8:47 AM 162
Prove that for an Ideal gas 𝐶𝑃 −𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

For Ideal gas 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑇
= +𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢
− =𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅

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Ratio of Specific Heats

• The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at

constant volume is given the symbol 𝛾(gamma)

𝐶𝑃
𝛾=
𝐶𝑉
Since 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅, it is clear that 𝐶𝑃 must be greater than 𝐶𝑉 for any gas. It
follows, therefore, that the ratio of 𝐶𝑃 & 𝐶𝑉 = 𝛾 is always greater than
unity.

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Relation between 𝐶𝑃 , 𝐶𝑉 𝐖𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝑅
𝐶𝑃
𝛾=
𝐶𝑉

𝐶𝑃 −𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅

𝛾𝑹
𝐶𝑃 =
𝛾−𝟏

𝑹
𝐶𝐕 =
𝛾−𝟏

Standard Value for air

𝒌𝑱 𝒌𝑱
𝐶𝑃 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝐶𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟖
𝒌𝒈 𝑲 𝒌𝒈 𝑲

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Prove that Enthalpy of an ideal gas is function of temperature only.

For Ideal gas

h = u + Pv.
= u + RT
So, h = f(T)
Since R is a constant and u is a function of T only
So enthalpy is a function of Temperature

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Application of First law to Non flow Process(Closed System )

1 𝑑𝑈
𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝐶𝑉 =
𝑚 𝛿𝑇
𝑉
Reversible Constant Volume :
𝛿𝑄 = dU 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For Pure substance : 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

For Gas : 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Irreversible Constant Volume :

𝛿𝑄 = dU − 𝛿𝑊 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

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 Application of First law to Non flow Process(Closed System )

1 𝑑𝐻
𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝐶𝑝 =
𝑚 𝛿𝑇
𝑉

Reversible Constant Pressure :

𝛿𝑄 = dH 𝐴𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 dH= dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

For Pure substance : 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1

For Gas : 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑚𝐶𝒑 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Irreversible Constant Pressure :

𝛿𝑄 = dH − 𝛿𝑊 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
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In which process work done is same as heat supplied?

𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝛿𝑊

dU =𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝒅𝑻 du will be zero in isothermal process

𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊

In Adiabatic Process
𝛿𝑄 = 0
𝛿𝑊 = −dU

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Prove that for an adiabatic process for an ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝛿𝑄 = dU + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝛿𝑄 =0 for adiabatic Process

𝑑𝑈 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 (1)
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 (2)
1 𝑑𝑈 dh
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 dT (3) 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑃 =
𝑚 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑉
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 dT (4)
Divide the eqn (4) by (3) 𝑑𝐻 𝐶𝑃
= =𝛾
𝑑𝑈 𝐶𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑃
=𝛾
−𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝛾 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑃 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑃
=− + =0 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑉 𝑃 𝑉 𝑃
𝛾 ln 𝑉 + ln 𝑃 = 𝐶

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𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 170
 𝛾−𝑛
• Specific heat for a polytropic process 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶
𝑛−1 𝑉

𝛾−𝑛
𝑄= 𝑊
𝑛 − 1 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐

Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Process.

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or Isentropic Process.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 172

Q3
The temperature of 3.5 kg of gas in a rigid container is increased from
250C to 450 C by heating it. The heat transferred during the process is 38
kJ, the specific heat ratio and molar mass of the gas is 1.42 and 28
respectively. Calculate the change in internal energy and work done for
the gas treating the gas to be a perfect gas.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 173

Q4
A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains 0.5 kg
of steam at 0.4 MPa. Heat is transferred to the steam until the
temperature is 300oC, while the pressure remains constant. Determine
the heat transfer and the work for this process.

21-May-22 8:47 AM 174

Q9
Air initially at 1 bar and 2700 C is compressed isothermally to one fifth of its
initial volume of 0.9 m3. It is then heated at constant volume to a condition
such that isentropic expansion from that state will return the system to the
original state. Determine the pressure and temperature at the end of
constant volume process

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 176
21-May-22 8:47 AM 177
During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains constant (ECV = constant), and thus the
change in the total energy of the control volume is zero .Therefore, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all
forms (by heat, work, and mass) must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it.

𝑚𝑉 2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + +U
2

Then the rate form of the general energy balance reduces for a steady-flow
process to

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 179
 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 no displacement work 𝑃𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, So H= U

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 182
Noting that energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only, the energy balance in Equitation for a
general steady-flow system can also be written more explicitly as

21-May-22 8:47 AM 183

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 190
Nozzle (Steam ) Steam at 0.4 MPa, 300ºC, enters an adiabatic nozzle
with a low velocity and leaves at 0.2 MPa with a
quality of 90%. Find the exit velocity.

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Nozzle (Steam )

21-May-22 8:47 AM 192

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 194
Steam Power Generation by a Steam Turbine
Turbine The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW,
and the inlet and the exit conditions of the steam are as
indicated in Fig.
(a) Compare the magnitudes of Δh, Δke, and Δpe.
(b) Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam
flowing through the turbine.
(c) Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.

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21-May-22 8:47 AM 196
Steam A turbine operates under steady flow condition receiving steam with the following data. Pressure P1 
Turbine 1.2 MPa; Temperature T1  188C; enthalpy h1  2785 kJ/ kg; Velocity C1  33.3 m/sec and elevation Z1 
3 m. The steam leaves the turbine at C2  100 m/sec velocity, zero elevation, pressure = 20 kPa, 2512
kJ/kg of enthalpy. Heat is lost to the surrounding at the rate of 0.27 kJ/sec. Determine the power output
of the turbine, if the mass flow rate of steam is 0.42 kg/sec.

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A closed system of mass 2 kg undergoes an adiabatic process. The work done on the system is 30 kJ. The velocity of
the system changes from 3 m/s to 15 m/s. During the process, the elevation of the system increases 45 meters.
Determine the change in internal energy of the system. Ans (∆u = 14.451 kJ)

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 Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger is a device in
which heat is transferred from
one fluid to another without
mixing with each other.

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 Throttling Device
• When the liquid passes through a restricted
path or partially open path , then a drastic
change in pressure can be observed which is
known a throttling.

ℎ1 = ℎ2 its an isenthalpy process

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Problem 2 :
Steam at 1.8 mPa , 400oC steadly enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.02m2, 𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 . The steam
leaves the nozzle at 1.4 MPa with velocity 275 m/s. Heat losses from the nozzle per unit mass of the
steam is 2.8 kJ/kg. Determine the inlet velocity and exit temperature . Ans : 42.11 m/s

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A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the
following state: Pressure 1.2 MPa, temperature 188°C, enthalpy 2785 kJ/kg,
velocity 33.3 m/s and elevation 3 m. The steam leaves the turbine
at the following state: Pressure 20 kPa, enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg, velocity 100 m/s,
and elevation 0 m. Heat is lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.29 kJ/s. If the
rate of steam flow through the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output
ofthe turbine in kW? (Ans. 112.51 kW)

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21-May-22 8:48 AM 203
 Second Law of
Thermodynamics

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 The body at 𝑇𝑖 dissipates heat to the atmosphere at 𝑇𝑂 over time
This process is not reversible i.e. energy dissipated to the atmosphere
cannot be used to heat the object back to 𝑇𝑖

The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but satisfying
the first law does not ensure that the process can actually occur. This
inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a process can take place is
remedied by introducing another general principle, the second law of
thermodynamics.
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 Limitation of First Law
• The first law of thermodynamic states that a certain energy flow takes
place when a system undergoes a process or change of state.

• In a cycle work is completely converted into heat or heat is completely

converted into work. But, experimentally its observed that total heat can
not be converted in to total work but the inverse is true.

• Heat is lower grade energy.

• Work is higher grade energy.

• It does not explain about the direction of energy flow.

• Does not explain about the criteria of energy transfer or feasibility of a

process.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
• It explains more about the quality of energy.
• First law gives quantitative definition and second law gives the
qualitative definition of energy.
• The Second law is also used to determine the theoretical limits for
the performance of mostly used engineering systems like heat
engines and heat pump.
• Introduce the concept of entropy.

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 Some of the Important Terms
• Thermal energy reservoir (TER) is a hypothetical body with a
relatively large thermal energy capacity that can supply or absorb
finite amounts of heat without undergoing any change in
temperature. Such a body is called a thermal energy reservoir, or
just a reservoir.
• Source is a high temperature heat reservoir from which heat is
transferred.
• Sink is a low temperature heat reservoir to which heat is
transferred.

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Heat engine and thermal efficiency

• A heat engine is a thermodynamic

system operating in a
thermodynamic cycle, to which
net heat is transferred and from
which net work is obtained.
• The system, or working fluid,
undergoes a series of processes
that constitute the heat engine
cycle.

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 HEAT ENGINES
Heat engines can be characterized by the following
:
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature
source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor,
etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in
the form of a rotating shaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.

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• Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a heat engine and is
defined by the ratio of the net work output to the heat input

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 Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
of thermodynamics states that no heat engine
can produce a net amount of work while
exchanging heat with a single reservoir only.
OR
It is impossible for any device that operates on a
cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work.

In other words, no heat engine can have a

thermal efficiency of 100 percent

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Perpetual Motion Machine-1 (PMM-1)
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed. It can only gets transformed from one form
to another form.
Perpetual Motion Machine is the machine which violates the law of
thermodynamics.
A machine, which can supply mechanical work continuously without
consumption of any energy, violates the first law of thermodynamics.
Thus this machine is the Perpetual Motion Machine of the First kind
(PMM1).

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Perpetual Motion Machine-2 (PMM-2)
• Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind is a heat engine that
violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law.

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REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
• The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special devices called refrigerators.
• Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high temperature one is the heat pump.

Heat pump Refrigerators

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Coefficient of Performance Refrigerator
• The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP), denoted by COPR. The objective of a refrigerator is to
remove heat (Q L) from the refrigerated space. To accomplish this objective,
it requires a work input of Wnet, in. Then the COP of a refrigerator can be
expressed as :

• COPR can be greater than unity.

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Coefficient of Performance Heat Pump
The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in
terms of the coefficient of performance COPHP, defined as

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Heat pump and Refrigerator
Refrigerator Heat Pump
1. Device which maintains the system 1. Device which maintains the system
temperature lower than the surrounding. temperature higher than the surrounding.
2. Here a refrigerator is a device that 2. The heat pump also operates on
operates on a thermodynamic cycle and thermodynamic cycle but rejects heat to the
extracts heat from a low-temperature high-temperature medium.
medium. Desire effect QH
3. COPR  
Desire effect Q work input Win
3. COPR   L
work input Win

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 Clausius Statement of The Second Law
• Clausius statement of the second law states that
it is impossible to construct a device that operates
in a cycle and produces no effect other than the
transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to
a higher temperature body.

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 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statement.
The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their consequences, and either statement
can be used as the expression of the second law of thermodynamics.

Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement

also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa.

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 Prove that violation of the Kelvin-Planck Statement leads to a violation of
the Clausius Statement,

• To let us assume that Kelvin-Planck

statement is incorrect.

• Consider a cyclically working device

PMM2, which absorbs energy Q1 as
heat from a thermal reservoir at t1.
Equivalent amount of work (W=Q1) is
performed.

• Consider one heat pump, which absorbs

energy Q2as heat from a low
temperature thermal reservoir at t2 and
rejects energy Q2+Q1. Such a device
does not violate Clausius statement.
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• If the two devices are now combined, the combined device (enclosed by the
dotted boundary) transfers heat Q2from the low temperature reservoir at t2 to
a high temperature reservoir at t1without receiving any aid from an external
agent, which is the violation of the Clausius statement.

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• Likewise let us assume that the
Clausius statement is incorrect.
• Consider a heat pump, transferring
heat Q1 from a low temperature
reservoir at t2 to a high temperature
thermal reservoir at t1 .
• Consider a heat engine which
absorbs heat Q1 from a high
temperature reservoir at t1 does work
W and rejects energy Q2 as heat to
the low temperature reservoir at T2 as
shown in figure.

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• If the two devices are combined ,then there is no need of the high
temperature reservoir, that can be removed. Then this will violet Kelvin-
Planck statement of second law by producing net work with a single reservoir.

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Reversible engine, heat pump and Refrigerator
• As efficiency is a function of temperature only.
𝑇𝐿
• 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐿
• 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 =
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿
𝑇𝐻
• 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 =
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿

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