What are the condition for total internal reflection?

When a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically

rarer medium and is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle for the
two media, the ray totally reflects back into the medium, obeying the laws of
reflection. This phenomenon is known as the total internal reflection

Conditions for total internal reflection

 The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle
for that pair of media.

 The ray of light must travel from a denser medium into a rarer medium.

What is Simple Harmonic Motion?

Simple Harmonic Motion or SHM is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position. The direction of
this restoring force is always towards the mean position. The acceleration of a particle
executing simple harmonic motion is given by, a(t) = -ω2 x(t). Here, ω is the angular velocity
of the particle.

Radiation
the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles,
especially high-energy particles which cause ionization. the process of giving off
energy in the form of waves or particles.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by circulating it through air or
liquids. ... A heat source at the bottom of the balloon heats the air
molecules around the flame, and those molecules rise. Warmer air is
less dense than cold air, so as the warm air rises the molecules spread
out.
he movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense
material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which
consequently results in transfer of heat.

Conduction
the process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through the material of a
substance when there is a difference of temperature or of electrical potential between
adjoining regions, without movement of the material.

the transfer of heat between two parts of a stationary system, caused by

a temperature difference between the parts. transmission through a
conductor. conductivity.

Adiabatic process

The thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat from the system
to its surrounding neither during expansion nor during compression.

Isothermal process
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of a
system remains constant. The transfer of heat into or out of the system happens so
slowly that thermal equilibrium is maintained. 

Explain the work done in isothermal process?

 In an isothermal process temperature remains constant.
 Consider pressure and volume of ideal gas changes from (P 1, V1) to (P2, V2).

At any intermediate stage with pressure P and volume change from V

to V+ΔVV+ΔV (ΔVΔV small)
then from first law of thermodynamics
ΔW=PΔVΔW=PΔV
Now taking ΔVΔV approaching zero i.e. ΔV→0ΔV→0 and
summing ΔWΔW over entire process we get total work done by gas so we
have
W=∫V2V1PdVW=∫V1V2PdV
where limits of integration goes from V1 to V2
as PV=nRTPV=nRT we have P=nRTVP=nRTV
 Therefore W=∫V2V1(nRTV)dVW=∫V1V2(nRTV)dV
On integrating we get,
W=nRTln(V2V1)W=nRTln(V2V1)
Where n is number of Moles in sample of gas taken.
and ln=logeln=loge
 This can be also written as
W=2.303nRTlog(V2V1)W=2.303nRTlog(V2V1)
 This can also be expresses in terms of Initial Pressure and Final Pressure
also W=2.303nRTlog(P1P2)W=2.303nRTlog(P1P2)
 We can easily conclude from Work done equation ,for V2>V1V2>V1, W > 0
and for V2<V1V2<V1, W < 0. That is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas
absorbs heat and does work while in an isothermal compression, work is done
on the gas by the environment and heat is released.

Derive mayers equation

Consider one mole of an ideal gas. Let dQ be the amount of heat is given to the system to
raise the temperature by dT, and change in internal energy be dV. Then, from first law of
Thermodynamics,
dQ = dU + PdV …(1)
If heat is supplied to one mole at constant volume,
i.e., V = constant,
then, dV = 0

From equation (2),

dQ = dU …(3)

Molar specific heat (CV ) at constant volume,

Cv={dQ/dT}v

From equation (4)

, dQ = dU = Cv dT …(5)

If one mole of gas is supplied heat at constant pressure, i.e., from equation (3) of molar specific heat
Cp at constant pressure,
The above expression is called Mayer’s relation where R = 8.31 J.mol-1 K-1. This relation is for one
mole of gas
Essential conditions for an isothermal process.
(i) The process of compression of expansion should be infinitely
slow. So as to provide a sufficient time for the exchange of heat.
(ii) The walls of the container must be perfectly conducting to allow
free exchange of heat between container and surroundings.
Consider a cylinder with μ, moles of an ideal gas at isothermal
expansion, then it reaches its final state (P2,V2) from initial state (P1
,V1) Meanwhile, in the state when pressure is P and change in
volume is V+dV from V, then pressure (P).
dW=PdV
Thus, total work done:
Eisothermal=∫V1V2P dV                ...(13.20)
From ideal gas equation for μ moles of a gas, we know that,
PV=μRT
P=VμRT
From equation (13.20),Wisothermal=∫V1V2Vμ RTdV
=μRT[logeV]V1V2
=μRT[logeV2−logeV1]
=μRTlogeV1V2
Wisothermal=2.303 μRTlog10V1V2                   ...(13.20 a)
Since pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other
in an isothermal process, then from equation (13.20 a), from Boyle's
law for ideal gas
P1V1=P2V2
P2P1=V1V2
Wisothermal=2.303 μRTlog10P2P1           ...(13.20 b)
The above expression shows the work done for p moles of an ideal
gas in an isothermal process, State equation for isothermal process,
PV= constant
∴P dV+V dP=0
V dP=−P dV
or, dVdP=V−P              ...(13.21)
The slope for P.V curve in an isothermal process is negative.
A heat engine that works according to the Carnot cycle is known
as a Carnot engine. The Carnot cycle provides an estimation of
the extreme possible efficiency that a heat engine converts heat into
output work, on the contrary, working between two reservoirs (hot
and cold).
The Carnot engine is an ideal engine that uses processes with
reversible mechanical and thermal exchanges. This statement
represents that the engine can complete its movement and come
back to its original condition without increasing entropy (without
losing energy). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state
without losing energy, it should be in thermal equilibrium condition
during the entire cycle. Following are some terms for the existence
of the Carnot engine:  

 Mechanical interactions: During the mechanical

interaction process (Q = 0), no heat transfer takes place
because energy doesn’t drop due to friction. This process
is called an adiabatic process.
 Thermal interaction: During the thermal interaction
process, the heat transfer is very slow (called quasi-
 static). It means that the temperature variation between
the input/output and the system heat is approximately
the same, which means that the heat transfer takes place
over an infinitely long time. During the thermal
interaction, the system’s internal temperature must be
constant. Therefore, this process is called the isothermal
process.
The engine which uses the above-given interactions is called a
Carnot engine.  This engine is a “fully reversible engine” with
the highest thermal efficiency (ηmax).

A Carnot engine works on the base of the Carnot cycle, which states
that:

1. The irreversible heat engine’s efficiency operating

between two reservoirs is always lower than that of a
reversible Carnot heat engine’s efficiency operated
between the 2 similar reservoirs.
2. All reversible heat engines working between the 2 similar
reservoirs have the same efficiency.
The temperature of the combustion chambers must be higher to
raise the thermal efficiency of the gas powerplant. For example,
turbine blades can’t resist hot gases, which leads to premature
fatigue.

A Carnot cycle works in the following four stages:

1. Isothermal Expansion
2. Adiabatic Expansion
3. Isothermal Compression
4. Adiabatic Compression