2.

Engineering thermodynamics

2.1 (Thermodynamics basics: Systems and Surrounding, temperature, Thermodynamics

properties, State Function and Path Function, Thermodynamics equilibrium, Zeroth law,
Ideal gas, Ideal gas equation, Universal Gas Constant and Characteristic Gas Constant,
Specific volume & quality, Two phase system, Two phase mixture, Development of property
charts and table)

Introduced- Lord kelvin

System, surrounding and boundary:

 System; inside (water in a water bottle)

 Surrounding: outside
 Boundary: Interface separating system and surrounding eg boundary is the internal
surface of water. Dotted line represents it.

Temperature:

 Fixed points of thermometry: The ice point, The steam point (before 1954)The triple
point of water (After 1954)
 Universal constant =1.366 (ratio of steam point to ice point)

Thermodynamic property

Thermometric properties are important for measuring temperature and are used in various
thermometers and temperature-sensing devices.

 Constant volume thermometer – P will be the thermodynamic property i.e resistance

 Constant pressure thermometer
 In the case of a Thermocouple, Voltage or EMF will be thermometric property.
 In the thermometer case, length or Volume will be thermometric property.


IDEAL GAS EQUATION - Ideal (perfect) gas equation is a unique equation of state, which
is applicable specifically to ideal gases. The molecular forces of attraction between gas
molecules are negligible in an ideal gas. The volume of the molecules should be negligible
compared to the total volume for a perfect gas. Following is the perfect or ideal gas equation:

PV=nRT

Where:
P = Absolute Pressure = atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure (in pascal)
V = Volume in m3
R= Universal Gas constant = 8.314KJ/Kmol-K
T = Absolute temperature in kelvin
n = number of moles (in k-mol)

Boyle’s Law- When the temperature is kept constant, the variation of pressure is such that for
a volume of a given mass of gas it varies inversely.

Charles Law- When the pressure remains constant, then the volume occupied by a fixed
amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
Zeroth law: If two thermodynamics systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Concept of temperature.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

When no change in macroscopic properties is observed, a system is said to be in a state of

thermodynamic equilibrium. A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if the
following conditions are met:

(i) Mechanical Equilibrium - without the presence of an unbalanced force within the system
itself and also between the system and the surroundings.

(ii) Chemical equilibrium - an absence of any chemical reaction or transfer of matter from
one part of the system to another.

(iii) Thermal equilibrium - When a system exists in mechanical as well as a chemical

equilibrium when separated from its surroundings by a diathermic wall (diathermic means
‘which allows heat to flow’).

Thermodynamics equilibrium states

State variables: thermodynamic variables, which depends only on the initial and final stage of
the thermodynamic system. Temperature, pressure, internal energy, enthalpy and density
are state variable.

Path variables: the thermodynamic variables that depends only on the way in which
thermodynamic system achieved the initial and final stages. Heat and work are the example
of the path variables.
 2.2 1st Law of thermodynamics: Conservation of mass and energy, Internal energy, Enthalpy
& specific heat, Work Transfer and Heat Transfer for Isothermal, isobaric, isochoric process,
adiabatic process & polytrophic process; steady and unsteady state work and flow application.

1st law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed in an isolated
system but can be transferred or changed from one form to another. It is a restatement of law
of energy conservation. dQ=dW+dU Concept of energy and energy conservation.

Q is the heat added to the system W is the work done by the system
 2.3 2nd Laws of thermodynamics: Kelvin Planck & Clausius Statements its equivalence,
Entropy and Entropy Relations, Isentropic process & efficiency, reversible and
irreversible process Heat engine, Heat pumps, Refrigerator, thermal efficiency,
coefficient of performance, Carnot cycle and its efficiency.

1. 2nd law of thermodynamics: For a natural system heat always flows in one direction
(higher temperature body to lower temperature body) unless it is added by external factor.
Concept of entropy or heat flow.
The second law is also used in the determination of the theoretical limits of the performance
of the general engineering systems like heat engines etc.
2. Heat engine: conversion of heat to work
 Wnet =Qin +Qout
 Wnet, out =Qin - Qout
 Thermal efficiency = Wnet,out /Qin =
3. Kelvin-plank statement: it is impossible for a heat engine to attain a thermal efficiency
of 100%.
4. Refrigerator and heat pump: Special devices are used for the transfer of heat from a lower
temperature region to a higher temperature one namely refrigerators and heat pumps.
a. A refrigerator maintains the refrigerated space at a lower temperature whereas a
heat pump absorbs heat from a lower temperature source and supplies the heat to a
warmer medium.
b. Coefficient of performance: Desired effect (qLor qH) / work input (Wc)
c. COPHP-COPR=1
d. COPR = 1/(QH/QL)-1, COPHP=1/1-(QL/QH)
e. COPR,rev = 1/(TH/TL)-1, COPHP, rev=1/1-(TL/TH)
f.
g. Most air conditioners have an energy efficiency rating (EER) in the range of 8 to
12 (with COP of 2.3 to 3.5).
5. Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower‐temperature body to a
higher‐temperature body."

a. A refrigerator can only operate when its compressor is driven by an external power
source.
6. Reversible and irreversible process:
a. Reversible process that can be reversed without causing any permanent change in
the surroundings
b. Reversible processes are shown by continuous line or curve whereas irreversible
processes are shown by dotted line or curve.
7. The Carnot cycle:
a. Carnot’s theorem states that all heat engines between two heat reservoirs are less
efficient than a Carnot heat engine operating between the same reservoirs.
b. Carnot engine: (Idle reversible engine) Works on Carnot cycle. It gives maximum
possible efficiency among all types of heat engine. Heat source- provides the heat
to the engine. Heat sink- extra amount of heat rejected by the engine. Work done-
amount of work done by the engine. C (eff.) = 1-Tc/Th (Tc is the temperature of
the sink and Th is the temperature of the source)

8. Entropy
a. Clausius inequality in Thermodynamics according to which the cyclic integral of
δQ / T is always less than or equal to zero.
i. It is valid for all cycles, be it reversible or irreversible.
b. dQrev, = TdS
 c. Entropy: it is the measure of the disorder of the system. S=Q/T. It describes how
much energy is not available to do work.

2.4 Thermodynamic cycles: Power and Refrigeration Cycle, Vapour compression & vapour
absorption cycle, Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, and their efficiency
and COP. (AMeE0204)

1. Rankine cycle: It is the changes in working substances in steam turbine power plants. First,
heat is supplied to the working substance so that it can produce some amount of work.
 2.5 Internal combustion engines: Working of spark ignition engines and compression
ignition engine; major components and their functions, Cycle of operation in four stroke and
two-stroke cycle engines.
2.6 Applied thermodynamics: Basic HVAC System, Boilers, Compressors, Refrigerants
and its properties, psychometrics.

1. Compressor
a. Compressors are power-consuming thermodynamic devices that convert
mechanical energy into head or pressure energy. The function of a compressor is to
compress the gases and vapors from low pressure to high pressure.
b. On the basis of final pressure
i. Low-pressure compressors - final pressure does not exceed 10 bar.
ii. Medium pressure compressors – final pressure with a 'range 10 bar to 80
bar.
iii. High-pressure compressor - final pressure with a range 80 to 1000 bar
c. On the basis of pressure rise limit
i. Fan, Pressure ratio <1.1.
ii. Blower, Pressure ratio >1.1<2.3.
iii. Compressor, Pressure ratio >2.3
Adiabatic: The thermodynamic process in a system during which no heat transfer occurs
between thermodynamic system and surrounding.

Isobaric: Pressure constant

Isochoric (isometric/isovolumetric): Volume constant

Isothermal: Temperature constant

Isentropic process: adiabatic reversible process with constant entropy

Isenthalpic process: at constant enthalpy

Internal energy: The energy contained within the system including potential and kinetic
energy. dU=U2-U1= mCv(T2-T1)

Steady state operation: there is no change in internal energy

Enthalpy: H=E+pV where H is the enthalpy E internal energy, p is the pressure and V is the
volume

Mechanical efficiency is given by BP/IP. Break power to indicated power