Thermodynamics 1

By: Engr. Lester Alfred M. Olasiman

Heat engine
Application of Ideal Gas Processes
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics has been enunciated meticulously
by Clausius, Kelvin and Planck in slightly different words although both
statements are basically identical. Each statement is based on an
irreversible process. The first considers transformation of heat between
two thermal reservoirs while the second considers the transformation of
heat into work
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
“It is impossible for a self-acting machine working in a cyclic process unaided
by any external agency, to convey heat from a body at a lower temperature to
a body at a higher temperature”. – Clausius
“It is impossible to construct an engine, which while operating in a cycle
produces no other effect except to extract heat from a single reservoir and do
equivalent amount of work”. – Kelvin and Planck
The second law of thermodynamics may be written in several ways.
Regardless of the terminology used, however, the purpose of the second law
is to give the sense of direction to energy-transfer.
The second law of thermodynamics states: “Whenever energy is transferred,
the value of energy cannot be conserved, and some energy must be
permanently reduced to a lower value.”
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
When this is combined with the first law of thermodynamics, the law of
energy conservation, the following results:

“Whenever energy is transferred, energy must be conserved, but the

value of energy cannot be conserved, and some energy must be
permanently reduced to a lower value.”
Heat Engines & Thermal Engine
Heat engine is a device that continuously converts heat to work (or
power). The word ‘continuous’ is of critical importance in this definition
and needs further elaboration;
it means that the engine will continue to operate if the heat energy
input is maintained. The ability of the device to convert heat to work
does not necessarily make the device a heat engine.
A heat engine is a device that operates in a cycle.
Heat Engines & Thermal Engine
1. Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be
characterized by the following:
2. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil
furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
3. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating
shaft).
4. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
5. They operate on a cycle.
6. Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from
which heat is transferred while undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the
working fluid.
Corollary of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
First Corollary of the Second Law The second law gives a sense of
direction to a process, whereas the first law does not. It also tells us that
it is impossible to have perpetual-motion machine of the second kind,
one that violates the second law.
The first of two corollaries to this law states:
“It is impossible to construct an engine to operate between two heat
reservoirs, each having a fixed and uniform temperature, that will
exceed the efficiency of reversible engine operating between the same
reservoirs.”
Corollary of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The second corollary of the second law states:
“All reversible engines have the same efficiency when working between
the same two constant temperature heat reservoirs.”

Work of a Cycle If there is no change in stored energy during cyclic

operation of a system, which may be steady or non-flow, the net
amount of energy crossing the boundary as heat equal to the net
amount of energy crossing the boundary as work.
Corollary of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
• 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝛴𝑊 = ΣQ
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣

• Reversible Non – Flow Process

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝

• Reversible Steady – Flow Process

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∫ 𝑇 𝑑𝑆
Corollary of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
• Thermal Efficiency The thermal 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
efficiency may well be thought 𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝑄𝐴
of in its simplest form, output
divided by input.
• The output of a power cycle is 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅
the network and the input are
the heat added to the working
substance from an external
source of heat
Carnot Cycle
The cycle was first suggested by a French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824
which works on reversible cycle and is known as Carnot cycle.
Any fluid may be used to operate the Carnot cycle which is performed in
an engine cylinder the head of which is supposed alternatively to be
perfect conductor or a perfect insulator of a heat.
Heat is caused to flow into the cylinder by the application of high
temperature energy source to the cylinder head during expansion, and
to flow from the cylinder by the application of a lower temperature
energy source to the head during compression.
Carnot Cycle
Carnot Cycle
• The assumptions made for describing the
working of the Carnot engine are as follows:
• The piston moving in a cylinder does not
develop any friction during motion.
• The walls of piston and cylinder are considered
as perfect insulators of heat.
• The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be
a perfect heat conductor or perfect heat
insulator.
• The transfer of heat does not affect the
temperature of source or sink.
• Working medium is a perfect gas and has
constant specific heat.
• Compression and expansion are reversible.
Carnot Cycle Processes
• Process 1 – 2: Isothermal Expansion
• Hot energy source is applied. Heat
Q1 is taken in whilst the fluid
expands isothermally and reversibly
at constant high temperature T1.
• Process 2 – 3: Isentropic Expansion
• The cylinder becomes a perfect
insulator so that no heat flow takes
place. The fluid expands
adiabatically and reversibly whilst
temperature falls from T1 to T2.
Carnot Cycle Processes
• Process 3 – 4: Isothermal Compression
• Cold energy source is applied. Heat Q2
flows from the fluid whilst it is
compressed isothermally and
reversibly at constant lower
temperature T2.
• Process 4 – 1: Isentropic Compression
• Cylinder head becomes a perfect
insulator so that no heat flow occurs.
The compression is continued
adiabatically and reversibly during
which temperature is raised from T2 to
T1.
Carnot Cycle Processes
• The work delivered from the system during the cycle is represented by
the enclosed area of the cycle. Again, for a closed cycle, according to
first law of the thermodynamics the work obtained is equal to the
difference between the heat supplied by the source (Q1) and the heat
rejected to the sink (Q2).
Analysis of Carnot Cycle
𝑉2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑇1 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1
𝑉4
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇3 (𝑆4 − 𝑆3 ) = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 𝑙𝑛
𝑉3

𝑊 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅 = (𝑇1 −𝑇3 )(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )

𝑊
𝑒= ; efficiency
𝑄𝐴
𝑊
𝑃𝑚 = ; mean effective Pressure
𝑉𝐷
Problem 1
A Carnot cycle receives 1000 BTU of heat while operating between
temperature limits of 1000°R and 500°R. Determine the cycle efficiency,
heat rejected, work of the cycle and the entropy change during heat
addition.
Problem 2
Gaseous nitrogen actuates a Carnot power cycle in which the respective
volumes at the four corners of the cycle, starting at the beginning of the
isothermal expansion, are V1 = 0.3565 ft3, V2 = 0.5130 𝑓𝑡 3 , V3 = 8.0
𝑓𝑡 3 , and V4 = 5.57 𝑓𝑡 3 . What is the thermal efficiency?