BE Mechanical Engineering

I/I
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and
Heat Transfer

5. Second Law of Thermodynamics

Control Mass Formulation of Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• The control mass formulation of the second law of thermodynamics
gives the expression for the change in entropy of the control mass
because of heat transfer and work transfer.

• For this formulation, we first find out the effects of heat transfer and
work transfer separately on the entropy of the control mass and then
we can develop the general expression and statement for the second
law of thermodynamics for a control mass.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 2

Contribution of Heat Transfer on Entropy
To determine the effect of heat transfer on entropy, we consider a system
having infinite heat capacity such that its temperature is unaffected by
the heat transfer. Such an idealized system which can interact with its
surroundings only by heat transfer (but not work transfer) is called a
reversible heat transfer reservoir and is specified by its temperature
Ti.
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 3
Substituting W = PdV = 0 into Gibbs Equation, we get

Applying first law of thermodynamics, we get

Substituting dU into the above equation, we get an expression for the

change in entropy due to a reversible heat transfer process as:

It shows that entropy of a system increase if heat is supplied to it and

decrease if it loses heat.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 4

Contribution of Work Transfer on Entropy
To determine the effect of work transfer on entropy, we consider a system
having infinite work capacity such that its pressure is unaffected by
the work transfer. Such an idealized system which can interact with its
surroundings only by work transfer (but not heat transfer) is called
a reversible work transfer reservoir and is specified by its pressure
P i.

Applying first law of thermodynamics for a reversible work transfer

reservoir, we get

Substituting dU into Gibbs Equation, we get an expression for the change

in entropy due to a reversible work transfer process as:

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 5

It shows that work transfer does not have any contribution on the entropy
of the system.

Control Mass Formulation

Now, applying second law of
thermodynamics for the isolated
system

Since the total change in entropy of the isolated system is given by the sum
of the change in entropy of the control mass, the change in entropy of the
reversible heat transfer reservoirs and the change in entropy of the
reversible work transfer reservoirs, i.e.,

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 6

If (Qi)RHTRS is the heat supplied to the reservoir at temperature Ti, that is
supplied by the control mass, therefore,

The above equation reduces to:

With reference to the above Equation, second law of thermodynamics for a

control mass can be stated as,

The change in entropy of a control mass is greater than or equal to the

sum of heat transfers divided by the corresponding boundary absolute
temperatures.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 7

The above can also be expressed in terms of entropy generation to avoid
inequality sign as:

The above equations can also be expressed in terms of rate as:

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 8

Control Volume Formulation of Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Control volume formulation of second law of thermodynamics gives the
expression for the change of entropy of a control volume due to mass
transfer as well as energy transfer.
The effect of mass transfer on the entropy can be determined by
evaluating properties of working substance at the inlet and outlet.

The effects heat transfer and work transfer on the entropy of the control
volume is similar to that for the control mass.
Therefore, we can state the second law of thermodynamics for a control
volume as
The change in entropy of a control volume minus the net entropy
change of working substance due to mass transfer is greater than or
equal to the sum of heat transfers divided by the corresponding
boundary absolute temperatures.
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 9
The above Equation can also be expressed in terms of entropy generation
to avoid inequality sign as

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 10

Isentropic Efficiency of Steady Flow Devices
• The process occurring in any steady flow device will be isentropic if it
does not involve any kind of losses (frictional loss, heat loss, etc)
therefore isentropic process is an ideal process.
• But the process occurring in any real device involves losses and the real
process differs from the idealized isentropic condition.
• The performance of the real device is compared with the idealized
device (isentropic) with reference to isentropic efficiency.
Isentropic Efficiency of a Turbine
• In case of work producing device real work is always less than the
isentropic work output because of losses.
• Hence, the isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of
work output from a real turbine and the work that would have been
produced when the turbine operates under isentropic condition, i.e.,

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 11

Isentropic Efficiency of a Pump/Compressor/Fan
• In case of work consuming device real work is always more than the
isentropic work input because we have to increase work input to
overcome the losses to get the same desired output effect.
• Hence, the isentropic efficiency of a pump or compressor is defined as
the ratio of the work that would have been required when the
pump/compressor operates under isentropic condition to work required
for the real pump/compressor and, i.e.,

Isentropic Efficiency of a Nozzle

• Similarly, the isentropic efficiency of a nozzle is defined as the ratio of
the kinetic energy of the fluid at the real nozzle exit to the kinetic
energy value at the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state
and exit pressure, i.e.,

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 12

A rigid vessel consists of 0.4 kg of hydrogen initially at 200 kPa and
27o C. Heat is transferred to the system from a reservoir at 600 K until
its temperature reaches 450 K. Determine the heat transfer, the change
in entropy of hydrogen and the amount of entropy produced. [Take cv =
10.183 kJ/kgK]

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 13

Solution:
Given, Mass of hydrogen (m) = 0.4 kg
Initial state: P1 = 200 kPa, T1 = 27o C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Temperature of the reservoir (Ti) = 600 K P,kPa

Final state: T2 = 450 K, V2 = V1 2

Process 1 – 2 : Constant volume heating process P2
Work transfer during the process is given as P 1
1

W = W12 = 0
V,m3
V1 = V2
Change in total internal energy is given as
U = mcv (T2 - T1) = 0.4 × 10.183 (450 - 300) = 610.98 kJ

Therefore, the heat transfer during the process is given as

Q = U + W = 610.98 + 0 = 610.98 kJ
Then, the change in entropy of hydrogen is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 14

The amount of entropy produced is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 15

A piston cylinder device shown in figure below
contains 1.5 kg of water initially at 100 kPa with 10 %
of quality. The mass of the piston is such that a
pressure of 400 kPa is required to lift the piston. Heat
is added to the system from a source at 500oC until its
temperature reaches 400oC. Determine the total
entropy generation during the process.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 16

Solution:
Given, Mass of H2O (m) = 1.5 kg
Initial state: P1 = 100 kPa, x1 = 0.1
Final state: Tfinal = 400oC
Temperature of the source (Ti) = 500oC = 500 + 273 = 773 K
Pressure required to lift the piston (Plift) = 400 kPa
Referring to the Table ,
l (100 kPa) = 0.001043 m3/kg,
lg (100 kPa) = 1.6933 m3/kg,
ul (100 kPa) = 417.41 kJ/kg,
ulg (100 kPa) = 2088.3 kJ/kg,
sl (100 kPa) = 1.3027 kJ/kgK,
slg (100 kPa) = 6.0562 kJ/kgK,
Tsat (100 kPa) = 99.63oC
Therefore, specific volume, specific internal energy and specific entropy
are given by
1 = l + x1 lg = 0.001043 + 0.1 × 1.6933 = 0.170373 m3/kg
u1 = ul + x1ulg = 417.41 + 0.1 × 2088.3 = 626.24 kJ/kg
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 17
s1 = sl + x1 slg = 1.3027 + 0.1 × 6.0562 = 1.90832 kJ/kgK

State 2:
P2 = 400 kPa, 2 = 0.170373 m3/kg
Referring to the Table ,
l (500 kPa) = 0.001084 m3/kg
g (400 kPa) = 0.4625 m3/kg.
Here l <  < g, hence it is two phase mixture.
 Temperature at state 2, T2 = Tsat (400 kPa) = 143.64oC.

State 3: P3 = 400 kPa, T3 = 400oC

Referring to the Table,
Tsat (400 kPa) = 143.64oC.
Here, T > Tsat, hence it is a superheated vapor.
Now, referring to the Table,
3 = 0.7726 m3/kg
u3 = 2964.3 kJ/kg
s3 = 7.8982 kJ/kgK
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 18
 P (kPa)
Change in total internal energy is given by
U = m (u3 - u1)
= 1.5 (2964.3 - 626.24) P2  P3
2
3
= 3507.09 kJ P1 1
v (m 3 kg )
v1  v 2 v3
Work transfer during the process is given by T(C )
W = W12 + W23 = 0 + P2 (V3 - V2) T3 3
= mP2 (3 - 2)
= 1.5 × 400 × (0.7726 - 0.170373) 2
T2
= 361.3362 kJ
T1 1
Then, total heat transfer is given by v 1  v2 v3 v (m 3 kg )

Q = U + W = 3507.09 + 361.3362 = 3868.4262 kJ

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 19

Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 4 MPa, 400o C and with a velocity
of 50 m/s and exits at 2 MPa and with a velocity of 300 m/s. If the
nozzle has an inlet area of 8 cm2, determine
(a) the exit temperature of steam from the nozzle, and
(b) the rate of entropy generation for the process

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 20

Solution:
Given,

For other properties of steam at inlet, referring to the Table,

Tsat (4000 kPa) = 250.39oC.
Here, T > Tsat, hence the condition of steam at nozzle inlet is
superheated vapor.
Now referring to the Table,
h1 = 3213.4 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.7688 kJ/kgK, 1 = 0.0734 m3/kg
Now applying steady state energy equation for an adiabatic nozzle,

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 21

Referring to the Table, hg (2000 kPa) = 2798.7 kJ/kg.
Here, h2 > hg, hence, the condition of steam at nozzle exit is also
superheated vapor.
Now, referring to the Table, specific enthalpy of a superheated vapor
which includes the specific enthalpy 3169.65 kJ/kg and corresponding
temperature and specific entropy are listed as:

Applying linear interpolation for temperature and specific entropy,

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 22

For adiabatic turbine, QCV = 0
Mass flow rate of steam is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 23

Air enters a compressor operating steadily at 100 kPa, 27o C and with
a volumetric flow rate of 1.2 m3/min and exits at 400 kPa, 177oC. The
power required to drive the compressor is 3.6 kW. Determine
(a) the heat transfer rate from the compressor surface and
(b) the rate of entropy generation if heat is transferred to the
surrounding at 20o C. [Take R = 287 J/kgK, cp = 1005 J/kgK]

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 24

Solution:
Given, Properties of air at inlet: P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 27oC = 300 K

Properties of air at exit: P2 = 400 kPa, T2 = 177oC = 177 + 273 = 450 K

Temperature of the surrounding (Tsur) = 20oC = 20 + 273 = 293 K

Specific volume of air at compressor inlet is given as

Then, mass flow rate of air is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 25

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 26
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 27
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 28
Steam enters into a turbine at a rate of 2 kg/s with P1 = 2 MPa, T1 =
600oC and exits at P2 = 9 kPa. Determine:
(a) power output if the turbine is isentropic,
(b) power output if isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 80% and
(c) outlet enthalpy of steam from the real turbine.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 29

Solution:

Properties of steam at inlet: P1 = 2 MPa = 2000 kPa, T1 = 600oC

Properties of steam at outlet: P2 = 9 kPa
For other properties of steam at inlet, referring to Table
Tsat (2000 kPa) = 212.42oC.
Here, T > Tsat, hence, the condition of steam at turbine inlet is a
superheated vapor.
Now, referring to the Table,
h1 = 3690.2 kJ/kg, s1 = 7.7024 kJ/kgK
Since entropy remains constant during isentropic process, entropy at
the turbine exit is s2 = 7.7024 kJ/kgK
Referring to Table,
sl (9 kPa) = 0.6223 kJ/kgK,
slg (9kPa) = 7.5629 kJ/kgK,
sg (9kPa) = 8.1852 kJ/kgK,
hl (9kPa) = 183.27 kJ/kg,
Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 30
hlg (9 kPa) = 2396.8 kJ/kg
Here, sl < s2 < sg, hence the condition of steam at turbine exits is a two
phase mixture.
Therefore, quality of the two phase mixture is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 31

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 32
Air enters a gas turbine at 1 MPa and 1500 K and exits at 100 kPa. If
its isentropic efficiency is 80 %, determine the turbine exit
temperature.

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 33

Solution:
Given,
Properties of are at inlet: P1 = 1 MPa = 1000 kPa, T1 = 1500 K
Properties of air at exit: P2 = 100kPa
Isentropic efficiency (isen) = 80% = 0.8
Process: Isentropic (reversible and adiabatic)
Then, temperature of air at turbine exit is given by

Fundamental of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 34

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