TIDAL TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction

Harnessing energy from the oceans tides is by no means a new concept. The development
of technologies to create electrical energy from tides has recently become of more
interest. The advancements in these technologies and the development of prototypes have
brought to light many challenges in developing this equipment. These structures must be
built to withstand the elements of nature such as storms and high waves whilst
minimising impact on the environment and marine life and still produce commercially
viable electricity efficiently.

Tidal Range Technologies

Tidal Barrages

There are currently several different methods of harnessing the power of tides. Tidal
barrages, which generate the largest amount of electricity, have been around since 1966
in France. These barrages cannot be built anywhere and the selection of site is essential.
The system needs to be located where the natural flow of water is concentrated between
obstructions such as land masses. River estuaries and entrances to bays are an ideal
choice as the flow of water is forced into a smaller area, magnifying the effect of the
movement of tides.

Tidal barrages work much like a hydroelectric

dam in that the barrage produces a pressure head
to drive turbines, but the barrage (or dam), is
much larger. The barrage is built across a river
estuary, which restricts the flow of water through
the turbines in the barrage. The ebb and flow of
the tides causes the water level on one side of the
barrage to change relative to the water level on
the other side, producing a pressure head. The
pressure head created forces water through
tunnels in the barrage where the turbines are
housed and can turn the turbines directly, or can
be used to push air through a pipe, which then
causes a turbine to rotate. The main components
Figure 1 - Tidal Barrage Cross- of a tidal barrage power station are caissons,
section turbines, sluices, embankments and ship locks.
The caissons are large concrete blocks, which house the turbines, sluices and ship locks.
The role of the embankment is to seal the basin where it is not sealed by the caissons.

The sluice gates allow the water to flow through the barrage and can be opened or closed
when needed. The flow of water from the sea into an estuary or bay is known as the
“flood tide”. Likewise, the flow in the opposite direction back into the sea is the “ebb
tide”. The barrage works during both tide flows, ebb generation producing more power
and with greater efficiency. Although barrages can be located in various different types of
locations as described previously, the process will be explained with an estuary type
barrage.

During the flood tide, the estuary is filled though the turbines, creating electricity. As
mentioned above, this is less efficient than ebb generation because the difference in water
levels cannot be controlled as with ebb generation by the sluice gates. The available
potential energy is therefore much less. The current from the river also acts against the
tide, slowing down the flow coming in from the sea. This would not be an issue with a
barrage built across a bay or lagoon instead of a river estuary.
For ebb generation, the sluice gates are closed at highest tide, and kept closed until the
sea level falls to create a sufficient pressure head across the barrage. The sluice gates are
then opened to allow the water from the estuary to pass through the turbines into the sea.
Once the water levels in the estuary and sea are the same, the gates are kept open and stay
open until the flood tide comes in and the cycle repeats itself.

The turbines can also be powered to pump water into the estuary side of the barrage
during ebb tide to increase the pressure head further. Although this seems pointless as
energy will be used in order to create energy, the energy that can be produced by this
extra pressure head is much greater than that used to create it. The figure and equation
below helps us see why this is.
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/01-02/RE_info/Tidal%20Power.htm

P = gCd A 2g(Z 2 − Z1 ) 3

Where, Cd = Discharge Coefficient

A = Cross sectional area (m2)
 g = Acceleration due to Gravity
 = Density of the Water (kg/m3)

The Discharge Coefficient will vary from barrage to barrage and takes into account the
restrictive effect of the flow passing through the barrage.

As can be seen from the equation above, the difference in water levels is an important
variable when calculating the power that is produced.

The turbines can be powered and used to pump water to increase the water level in the
estuary at high tide. So if the water is raised by 1 m by pumping on a high tide of 5 m,
then the resultant difference in water levels when the tide is out is 6m instead of 5m
without pumping. So the cost of a 1 m rise is returned by the benefits of a 6 m rise.

One of the drawbacks of a tidal barrage power station is that it can only produce power
for 10 hours each day. This requires other means of generating power for the rest of the
time. In order to provide continuous power, a dual basin type barrage can be built. One
basin is filled at high tide as normal and the other is emptied at low tide. There are
turbines between the two basins, allowing the water to flow from one to another. These
two basin systems benefit from greater versatility in controlling the generation time so
that it is continuous if needed. Dual basin systems may sound ideal but the huge increase
in cost required usually means that in practice, the single basin barrage is chosen.

Tidal Delay

Recently a new concept patented Tidal Delay

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Figure 2 - Tidal Delay Concept
is based on a similar idea to tidal barrages but
requires naturally occurring coastal landforms
such as peninsulas or isthmuses. The landforms
create a time delay between the water levels on
either side of the landform. It often takes
several hours for the water level on both sides
of the barrier to find equilibrium due to the
high mass of the sea water. This delay in
equilibration of water levels creates a natural
potential energy difference across the landform
much like that creates by an artificial tidal
barrage. By connecting both sides of the
landform with seawater carrying pipes, the
potential energy can be harnessed by fitting a
standard turbine and generator inside the pipe.
The method works for both the ebb and flow of
the tides.

Figure shows two configurations of the system with the pipes above the landmass and an
underground pipe passage which will produce more power but with a much higher capital
cost due to installation. Data has been collected for pipe lengths of 100 – 4000m with
internal pipe diameters of 1 – 3m, and a tidal water level difference across the landform
of 1 – 6m. The data is summarised in the table below to show the cost of electricity
generation in USD cents per kWh depending on the variables of pipe diameter, pipe
length, and relative difference in water levels on either side of the barrier.
 QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Figure 3 - Cost of electricity generation based on 20 years life of plant (excluding maintenance)

Tidal Stream Technologies

The tidal turbine works in the same way as its wind counterpart, except that the density of
sea water is 832 times greater than air and a non-compressible fluid. An 8 knot tidal
current is the equivalent of a 244 mph wind (Blue Energy, 2007), which in relative
conditions, results in a wind turbine having the same rated power as a tidal turbine of half
the diameter.

Many of the companies associated with this sector of power generation claim that their
products are less invasive than on or off-shore wind turbines due to their physically
smaller size and lower visual impact as most the device is located under the water. These
devices are also less intrusive towards marine life than tidal barrages as they do not
restrict the natural flow of the water and their turbines have a relatively slow rotational
speed when compared to those in a tidal barrage.

Horizontal Axis Offshore Turbines (HOATs)

The most common type of offshore tidal turbine is the horizontal axis model. The idea is
taken from wind turbines, where the technologies are and components have been in
research and development since the 1970’s, and are well understood.

Although the design of tidal turbines is similar to wind turbines, there are several factors
that need to be considered due to the different environment in which they are used. There
are various designs which have yet to reach the prototype stage which focus on ways of
supporting the rotor and transmission so that it follows the water flow while minimising
installation and maintenance costs. Anchoring the unit itself can be done in various ways
such as fixed sea-bed mounting, using gravity itself without actually anchoring, and
submerged floating designs which avoids the vulnerability of surface floating designs and
impracticality of sea-bed mounting. The submerged floating design is ideal for deep-
water sites, where 60-70% of the resource lies.

Although there are many variations, the basic components are a rotor, which is connected
to a gearbox with then drives the generator. A power converter and step up transformer
are then connected in series to allow the unit to be connected to the national grid. Most
companies developing horizontal axis tidal turbines have opted to having two contra-
rotating rotors instead of one in order to cancel out the torque on the main support. Some
choose to use four rotors instead of two to keep the loads on the blades within operational
limits. Designing the turbine so that it can yaw to keep in line with the current flow is
important so that the turbines can harvest the maximum amount of power from the flow.

Figure 4 - The SST compared to a Figure 2 - Marine Turbine's SeaGen

similarly rated wind turbine

Figure shows the Semi-Submersible Turbine (SST) designed by Tidal Stream. The
swinging arm design is attached to the gravity base via a 3-axis swivel assembly in the
form of a ball joint. The swinging arm is hinged at the upper end to the main spar buoy so
it can be lifted out of the water for installation and maintenance. To accomplish this the
main spar pumps water out of it to increase its buoyancy and rise to the surface. River
models and experimental operation of large downwind free-yaw free-nod wind turbines
such as the WEG MS4 indicate that the swing-arm provides an appropriate restriction of
freedom so that the turbine runs stably and follows the flow direction accurately (Tidal
Stream website). The current design is suitable for depths of 50 - 80m and has four 20m
rotors with a total rated output power of 4MW.

Vertical Axis Offshore Turbines (VOATs)

Vertical Axis offshore turbines are very similar to the horizontal axis variety with the
same general components excepts that the rotors themselves, as the name suggests, are
mounted vertically instead of horizontally. Hydrofoil blades are fixed to a rotor that
drives a gearbox and generator. The blades utilise the principal of hydrodynamic lift to
which allow them to move proportionally faster than the velocity of the current flow. The
turbines are designed to be unidirectional on both the ebb and flow of the tide. The
current leaders in VAOTs are Blue Energy, a Canadian company, who have successfully
developed a prototype and are currently in the process of putting their first commercial
installation in place.

Figure 5 - Blue Energy's VAOT
The Blue Energy Ocean Turbine
consists of four fixed hydrofoil blades
connected to a rotor, which drives an
integrated gearbox and electrical
generator assembly. The turbine itself
is anchored to the ocean floor by being
mounted in a concrete caisson. The
gearbox and generator sit above the
surface of the water to facilitate
maintenance and therefore decreasing
maintenance costs.

Only a few examples of hundreds have been discussed in this section. Most are still under
development with only a few such as the SeaGen turbine, which will actually be fully
installed and tested in the next few years.

Oscillating Hydrofoil

The principles and technology regarding the oscillating hydrofoil is considerably

different from the more commonly used rotational devices. The relative motion of the
tidal current over the foil section causes a pressure difference on the foil section, which
oscillates the hydrofoil inducing hydrodynamic lift and drag forces. The forces induce a
tangential resultant force to the fixing arm of the hydrofoil that drives a reciprocating
hydraulic ram pump which forces hydraulic fluid under high pressure to rotate a
hydraulic motor and electrical generator. Depending on the negative or positive angle of
attack relative to the stream flow, the hydrofoil will rise and fall producing the oscillating
motion. The rate of oscillation depends on a number of mechanical and hydrodynamic
variables. The lift generated is dependant on the velocity and density of the flow, the
surface area of the foil, its aspect ratio and its profile characteristics, such as drag and lift
coefficients for the optimum angle of attack.

Unlike the more conventional

technologies utilising rotors, which
have a constant rotational speed
and linear velocity, the lift causing
oscillation of the hydrofoil
approximates a sinusoidal decay
from the vertical to horizontal arm
positions. This loss in momentum
and non-linear velocity means
there is a large degree of
mechanical complexity in
optimising the devices power
output.
Figure 6 - Blue Energy's VAOT
The angle of attack of the hydrofoil is relative to the velocity of the flow and as the
hydrofoil is continually in motion, the angle of attack must be controlled to maintain
efficient performance. This is controlled by program logic control (PLC), which
constantly monitors all the mechanism parameters, the arm position, the flow velocity
and the pressure of the hydraulic system. Using this information, the PLC controls the
angle of attack of the hydrofoil through a hydraulic ram. It is important that the hydrofoil
be held stably at its optimum angle of attack as if it tends to wobble, lift is significantly
reduced and drag is increased, causing the overall cycle time to decrease. The power
extraction also needs to be monitored as the resultant power curve is not steady, adding
yet another element of complication and of course, cost.

Mechanical Considerations

Gearbox and Generator

Having a gearbox and generator that is accessible above sea level has the benefits of
lower maintenance costs but does restrict the depth in which the turbine can operate. So
the higher cost of maintenance for a turbine, which is fully submerged but can operate in
deeper water, may be worth it to make better use of the current available and result in a
higher power output. However, this will vary depending on geographic location and may
have an impact on the choice of turbine for a chosen location.

Seabed Mounting

The configurations of seabed mounting of turbines from different companies appear to be

one of the main differences between designs. The mountings include the use of simple
gravity bases and methods of fixing the unit to the seabed by drilling, to various tethered
floating systems. The importance of the mounting has a large effect on installation and
maintenance costs and must be considered when designing the unit. The SST, as
discussed earlier, has a novel ball jointed swinging arm design, which utilises a gravity
base. In addition to minimising installation costs such as drilling into the seabed by using
a gravity base, the design still incorporates a mechanism to enable the turbine to yaw and
keep in line with the flow of the current while still allowing the entire turbine to be raised
above the water level for maintenance. It seems that gravity base designs with simple
connections to the turbines as with the SeaGen minimise the cost of the unit and therefore
make the concept much more attractive for use in the real world. It is evident from the
projects which are currently planned that the simpler designs of HOATs are favoured as a
viable solution although this may be due to the research and knowledge already available
from tried and tested wind turbines allowing these companies to bring their product to
market quicker than competitors. Offshore tidal stream turbines are still considered a new
technology with several innovative designs in development therefore it would not be
accurate to say that HOATs are generally better designs despite the fact they seem a more
popular choice at the moment.
Shrouded or Unshrouded

One newer concept with HAOTs is the

shrouded tidal turbine. The turbine is
placed in the throat of a the shroud,
which can increase the flow velocity
across the turbine by a factor or 3 or 4.
The turbine is therefore able to output 3
to 4 times the energy of an equivalent
turbine with no shroud. The more power
generated means a greater return for the
investors, making the units
commercially more attractive. Due to the
increased flow velocities across the Figure 7 - Lunar Energy Rotec Tidal Turbine (RTT)
turbines, the number of potential sites is
increased, as sites in which the flow was previously too slow, have now become
commercially viable. The increase in flow velocity due to the shroud also allows smaller
turbines to be used in shallow rivers and estuaries, reducing the risk of collisions with
ships. The shroud also provides more protection than free stream designs from floating
debris. The RRT turbine (figure ) uses a venturi shroud and a “removable cassette” which
allows for the rotor and gearbox/generator assembly to be easily removed for
maintenance and a new cassette can easily replace a damaged one if needed.

However, shrouded turbines are directional, and so must be allowed to yaw so that the
shroud can be in line with the current flow and pivot to use both the ebb and flood tides.
If the shroud is fixed then the turbines may not work efficiently. As the flow velocity is
3-4 times greater with shrouded turbines, the forces they must cope with are 3-4 times
greater and therefore a stronger, more robust design is necessary. The unit must also be
designed so that turbulent flow does not flow onto the turbine, reducing efficiency.

Connection to the National Grid

In order for new tidal technologies to connect the electricity system, the grid requires
sufficient capacity to manage the flow of power that they generate. To connect any tidal
generation project to the national grid would require new sub-sea cables to the mainland
at either 33kV or 132kV in order to comply with standard regulations. The capacity of the
grid varies by location. This means that many sites with significant tidal resources as in
the north of Scotland do not have sufficient capacity to allow large tidal systems to be
connected to the grid. There is still some capacity in the north of Scotland for very small-
scale power generation projects but any large-scale projects would require reinforcements
to the grid for which construction is both lengthy, which would significantly delay
projects, and be very costly. In other areas of the UK these issues exist but are less
apparent, as many new wind projects are taking up the capacity of the grid and it is likely
that tidal projects would trigger necessary grid re-enforcements. There are also sites that
currently have the capacity to have tidal generations systems connected to them such as
the Severn, the Mersey, and the Wash.