Flow of Compressible Fluids

𝐕𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
𝐌𝐚 =
𝐕𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
𝐌𝐚 = 𝟏. 𝟎 (𝐒𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜)
𝐌𝐚 < 𝟏. 𝟎 (𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜)
𝐌𝐚 > 𝟏. 𝟎 (𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜)
Assumptions:
1. The Flow is steady.
2. The flow is one dimensional.
3. Velocity Gradients within a cross section are neglected, so that 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 1and 𝑉̅ = 𝑢.
4. Friction is restricted to wall shear.
5. Shaft work is zero.
6. Gravitational effects are negligible, and mechanical potential energy is neglected.
7. The fluid is an ideal gas of constant specific heat.

The following basic relations are used:

1. The continuity equation.
2. The steady-flow total-energy balance.
3. The mechanical energy balance with wall friction.
4. The equation for the velocity of sound.
5. The equation of state of the ideal gas.
Note: Each of these equations must be put into suitable form.

Total-energy balance:
Q vb2 va2
= Hb − Ha + −
m 2 2
Where: Q = heat in joules
m = mass of material in kg
Hb = Enthalpy at point b
Ha = Enthalpy at point a
vb2 = Velocity at point b
va2 = Velocity at point a
 Velocity of Sound
• Acoustical velocity-The velocity of sound through a continuous material medium.
• Thermodynamically, the motion of a sound wave is a constant-entropy or isentropic
process. (Isentropic-process is reversible and adiabatic, Δ𝑆 = 0).
• The magnitude of the acoustical velocity in any medium is shown below:
𝑑𝑝
𝑎 = √( )
𝑑𝜌 𝑠
𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡.

Take the following as R (molar gas law constant):

𝐽 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 = 8,314 = 1,545
𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑅

Acoustic velocity and Mach number of ideal gas. For an ideal gas, an isentropic path follows the
equations:

𝑷𝝆−𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟏
−(𝟏− )
𝑻𝑷 𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒄𝒑 𝒄𝒑
𝜸= =
𝒄𝒗 𝒄 − 𝑹
𝒑 𝑴

𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑇𝑅 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑎=√ =√ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 20𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑎 = 343 𝑜𝑟 1,125
𝜌 𝑀 𝑠 𝑠

2
ρv 2 v2
Ma = =
γP R
γT
M
The asterisk condition:
The state of the fluid moving at its acoustic velocity is important in some processes of
compressible-fluid flow. The condition where 𝑣 = 𝑎 and 𝑀𝑎 = 1 is called the asterisk condition,
and the pressure, temperature, density, and enthalpy are donated by 𝑃∗ , 𝑇 ∗ , 𝜌∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻∗ at this
state.
Stagnation temperature, Stagnation Enthalpy, Energy balance at Stagnation:
The stagnation temperature of a high-speed fluid is defined as the temperature the fluid
would attain were it brought to rest adiabatically without the development of shaft work.
Stagnation is denoted by the subscript 𝑠.
𝑣2
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇 +
2𝑐𝑝
𝑣2
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐻 +
2
Q
= 𝐻𝑠𝑏 − 𝐻𝑠𝑎 = (𝑇𝑠𝑏 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎 )𝑐𝑝
m
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐻𝑠𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐻𝑠𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.
PROCESSES OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
• It is assumed that a very large supply of gas at specified temperature and pressure and
at zero velocity and Mach number is available.
• The origin of the gas is called “reservoir”, and the temperature and pressure of the gas
in the reservoir are called “reservoir conditions”.
• The reservoir temperature is a stagnation value, which does not necessarily apply at
other points in the flow system.
• From the reservoir, the gas is assumed to flow, without friction loss at the entrance,
into and through the pipe. The gas leaves the pipe at definite temperature, velocity,
and pressure and goes into an exhaust receiver, in which the pressure may be
independently controlled at a constant value less than the reservoir.
In the pipe, the following processes may occur:
1. Isentropic expansion. In this process the cross-sectional area of the conduit must change,
and the process is described as one of variable area. Because the process is adiabatic, the
stagnation temperature does not change in the conduit.

Isentropic flow in a convergent-divergent nozzle.

2. Adiabatic Friction Flow through a pipe of constant cross section. This process is
irreversible, and the entropy of the gasincreases; but as shown, since Q=0, the stagnation
temperature is constant throughout the conduit.
 Adiabatic friction flow
3. Isothermal friction flow through a pipe of constant cross-sectional area, accompanied by
a flow of heat through the pipe wall sufficient to keep the temperature constant. This
process is nonadiabatic and nonisentropic; the stagnation temperature changes during
the process, since T is constant.

Isothermal Friction Flow

Note: The changes in gas temperature, density, pressure, velocity, and stagnation
temperature are predictable from the basic equations.
Equations for Isentropic flow

Change in gas properties during flow: The density and temperature paths of the gas
through any isentropic flow are given below. The constants are evaluated from the
reservoir condition.
𝑃 𝑃0
=
𝜌𝛾 𝜌0𝛾
𝑇 𝑇0
1 = 1
1− 1−
𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾
0
Note: The above equations apply to both frictionless subsonic and supersonic flow, but
they must not be used across a shock front.

Velocity in nozzle.
1
1−
2𝛾𝑃0 𝑃 𝛾
𝑣2 = [1 − ( ) ]
(𝛾 − 1)𝜌0 𝑃0

𝑃
For the ratio of :
𝑃0
𝑃 1
= 1
𝑃0 1
(𝛾 − 1) 2 1−
𝛾
{1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎 }

The Critical Pressure Ratio, denoted by 𝑟𝑐 , 𝑃 ∗ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎:

1
∗
𝑃 2 1−𝛾1
𝑟𝑐 = =( )
𝑃0 𝛾+1
Note: For air at 300K, 𝛾 = 1.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑐 = 0.528

Mass Velocity:
1 1
2𝛾𝜌0 𝑃0 𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 1−𝛾
𝐺 = 𝜌𝑣 = (√ ) ( ) [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑃0 𝑃0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑎 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.
Example: Page 144 of McCabe

Air enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at a temperature of 555.6 K (1,000R) and a

pressure of 20 atm. The throat area is one-half that of the discharge of the divergent
section.
a. Assuming the Mach number in the throat is 0.8, what are the values of the following
quantities at the throat: pressure, temperature, linear velocity, density, and mass
velocity?
b. What are the values of P*, T*, v*, and G* corresponding to reservoir conditions?
c. Assuming the nozzle is to be used supersonically, what is the maximum Mach number
at the discharge if the divergent section? For air 𝛾 = 1.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = 29
Equations for Adiabatic Friction Flow
Flow through straight pipes of constant cross section is adiabatic when heat transfer
through the pipe wall is negligible. Although there is usually heat transfer, adiabatic flow
is often a good approximation to actual conditions. The typical situation is a long-
insulated pipe into which gas enters at a given pressure and temperature and flows at a
rate determined by the length and diameter of the pipe and pressure maintained at the
outlet. Maintaining a constant discharge pressure and lengthening the pipe, to force the
gas to change from subsonic to supersonic flow or from supersonic to subsonic, the mass
flow rate will decrease to prevent such a change. This effect is called “Choking”.

𝑓𝐿
The friction parameter ( )
𝑟 𝐻

𝑓𝐿
• The basic quantity that measures the effect of friction is the friction parameter .
𝑟𝐻
• In adiabatic friction flow, temperature of the gas changes.
• Viscosity, Reynold’s number, and friction factor varies and are not actually constant.
• It is satisfactory to use an average value for f as a constant in calculations, but if
necessary, f can be evaluate at the two ends of the conduit and arithmetic average
used as a constant.
• Note that Friction factors in supersonic flow are not well-established. Apparently,
they are approximately one-half those in subsonic flow for the same Reynold’s
number.

2 𝛾−1 2
𝑓̅ ̅
𝑓𝐿 1 1 1 𝛾 + 1 𝑀𝑎𝑏 {1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎𝑎 }
(𝐿 − 𝐿𝑎 ) = = [ − − ln ]
𝑟𝐻 𝑏 𝑟𝐻 𝛾 𝑀𝑎𝑎2 𝑀𝑎𝑏2 2 2
𝑀𝑎𝑎 {1 + [
𝛾−1 2
] 𝑀𝑎𝑏 }
2
𝑓𝑎 + 𝑓𝑏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑓 ̅ =
2
= 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑎
Property Equations: For calculating the changes in Pressure, Temperature, and
Density, following equations are used:
𝛾−1 2
𝑃𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑏2 1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎𝑏
= √
𝑃𝑏 𝑀𝑎𝑎2 1 + [𝛾 − 1] 𝑀𝑎2
2 𝑎
 𝛾−1 2
𝑇𝑎 1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎𝑏
=
𝑇𝑏 1 + [𝛾 − 1] 𝑀𝑎2
2 𝑎

𝛾−1 2
𝜌𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑏 𝑀𝑎𝑏 1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎𝑎
= ( )= √
𝜌𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑇𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑎 1 + [𝛾 − 1] 𝑀𝑎2
2 𝑏

Maximum Conduit Length. To ensure that the conditions of a problem do not call for the
impossible phenomenon of a crossing of the sonic barrier, an equation is needed giving
𝑓̅𝐿
the maximum value of consistent with a given etrance number Mach number.
𝑟𝐻
Entrance is station a and station b as the asterisk condition, where Ma=1.0. Then the
length Lb-La represents the maximum length of conduit, denoted by 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

𝛾−1 2
̅ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 1
𝑓𝐿 𝛾 + 1 {1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑎𝑎 }
= [ 2−1− ln ]
𝑟𝐻 𝛾 𝑀𝑎𝑎 2 2 𝛾−1
𝑀𝑎𝑎 {1 + [ ]}
2
Mass Velocity. To calculate the Reynold’s number for evaluating the friction factor, the mass
velocity is needed.

2
𝐺2𝐺2
𝑀𝑎 = =
𝑅
𝜌 𝛾𝑇 ( ) 𝜌𝛾𝑃
2
𝑀
Therefore:

𝛾𝑇𝑅
𝐺 = 𝜌𝑀𝑎√ = 𝑀𝑎√𝜌𝛾𝑃
𝑀

Note: G is independent of length, mass velocity can be evaluated at any point where
the gas properties are known. Normally the conditions at the entrance to the conduit
are used.
Example: Page 145 of McCabe
Air flows from a reservoir through an isentropic nozzle into a long, straight pipe. The
pressure and temperature in the reservoir are 20 atm and 1,000R (555.6K),
respectively, and the Mach Number at the entrance of the pipe is 0.05.
𝑓̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
a. What is the value of 𝑟𝐻
?
b. What are the pressure, temperature, density, linear velocity, and mass velocity when 𝐿𝑏 =
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ?
𝑓̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
c. What is the mass velocity when 𝑟𝐻
= 400?
Isothermal Friction Flow. The temperature of the fluid in compressible flow through a
conduit of a constant cross section may be kept constant by a transfer of heat through the
conduit wall. Long, small, uninsulated pipes in contact with air transmit sufficient heat to
keep the flow nearly isothermal. Note that, for small Mach numbers, the pressure pattern
for the isothermal flow is nearly the same as that for adiabatic flow for the same entrance
conditions.
2 2 𝐺 2 𝑅𝑇 𝜌𝑎 𝑓(𝐿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑎 ) 𝐺 2 𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑎 𝑓(𝐿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑎 )
𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = [2 ln + ]= [2 ln + ]
𝑀 𝜌𝑏 𝑟𝐻 𝑀 𝑃𝑏 𝑟𝐻

𝑀
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) = 𝑃𝑏 √
𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝑇
𝑣 𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) = √
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀
1
𝑀𝑎𝑏 =
√𝛾
Heat Transfer in Isothermal Flow
𝑄 𝑣𝑏2 − 𝑣𝑎2 𝐺 2 1
= = ( 2 )
𝑚 2 2 𝜌𝑏 − 𝜌𝑎2
Example: from Geankoplis page 102
Natural gas, which is essentially methane, is being pumped through a 1.016m
ID pipeline for a distance of 1.609 𝑥 105 𝑚 at a rate of 2.077 kmol/s. It can be
assumed that the line is isothermal at 288.8K. The pressure P2 at the discharge
end of the line is 170.3 𝑥 103 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑠. Calculate the pressure P1 at the inlet of
the line. The viscosity of the methane at 288.8K is 1.04 𝑥 10−5 𝑃𝑎 𝑠.