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Thermodynamics
 Introduction to Thermodynamics

Thermo Dynamics

Related to Heat Related to Mechanics

• It deals with heat, work, temperature, and

interconversion between heat and other forms of energy.
 Thermodynamic System

• Collection of a large number of atoms and molecules confined within a certain

boundary, with a certain value of pressure (𝑃), volume (𝑉), and temperature (𝑇).

Surroundings • Everything outside the boundary is the Surrounding.

Boundary
Thermodynamic system + Surrounding = Universe
System
 Types of Systems

Adiabatic wall

• No exchange of Energy
Isolated
• No exchange of Mass

Diathermic wall

• Exchange of Energy
Types of Closed
System • No exchange of Mass

• Exchange of Energy
Open
• Exchange of Mass
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• If two systems 𝐴 and 𝐵 are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one 𝐶, then they themselves
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

At thermal equilibrium,

𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐶

𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇𝐶

∴ 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵
 Thermodynamic State

• Thermodynamic parameters pressure (𝑃), volume (𝑉), and temperature (𝑇) of a gas change when
heated.
• 𝑃, 𝑉, 𝑇 as a combination define the state of a gas at any instant.

Indicator Diagram:

• The graphical representation of the change in

state of a gas in a thermodynamic process.

• Each point on the indicator diagram represents a

unique state of the gas.

Each point on indicator
diagram represents a unique
state of gas
• In path−𝐼, initially volume of
gas is kept constant at 𝑉1
and its pressure is increased
from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 then pressure
𝑃2 is kept constant and
volume is increased to 𝑉2 .
Thermodynamic State
Each point on indicator
diagram represents a unique
state of gas
• In path−𝐼𝐼𝐼, first pressure
is kept constant at 𝑃1 and
volume is increased to 𝑉2
then volume is kept
constant at 𝑉2 and
pressure is increased to 𝑃2 .
Each point on indicator
diagram represents a unique
state of gas
• In path−𝐼𝐼, both pressure
and volume are changed
simultaneously along the
curve shown to attain the
desired values of pressure
and volume of state−2.
 Thermodynamic Processes

Some Standard
Thermodynamic Processes

Isochoric1
Heading Isobaric1
Heading Isothermal
Heading 1 Adiabatic1
Heading
 Isothermal Process

• Temperature of the system remains constant (𝑇 = Constant).

• The pressure and volume of the system vary.

𝑃 𝑉 = Constant
𝑇 = Constant

𝑃 𝐵 𝑉 𝐴 𝑃 𝐵

𝑇0
𝐴 𝐵 𝑃0
𝐴

𝑇0 𝑇 𝑇0 𝑇 𝑉0 𝑉
 Isobaric Process

• Pressure of the system remains constant (𝑃 = Constant).

• The temperature and volume of the system vary.

𝑃 = Constant
𝑉∝𝑇

𝑃 𝑃 𝑉

𝐵
𝑃0 𝑃0
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝑛𝑅
𝐴 tanθ =
𝑃0
θ
𝑉 𝑇 𝑇
 Isochoric Process

• Volume of the system remains constant (𝑉 = Constant).

• The temperature and pressure of the system vary.

𝑉 = Constant
𝑃∝𝑇

𝑃 𝐵 𝑃 𝑉
𝐵

𝑛𝑅 𝑉0
tanθ =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉0 𝐴 𝐵

θ
𝑉0 𝑉 𝑇 𝑇
 2 𝑘𝑔 of air kept in closed vessel of volume 1 𝑚3 is heated from 20∘ C to
35∘ C at constant volume. What is the change in pressure of the air?
Given:

𝑚 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝑉 = 1 𝑚3 , 𝑇𝑖 = 20 °𝐶, 𝑇𝑓 = 35 °𝐶, 𝑅𝐶 = 0.287 × 103 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾

Solution:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝐶 𝑇
For constant volume, Δ𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝐶 (Δ𝑇)

𝑚𝑅𝐶 Δ𝑇
⇒ Δ𝑃 =
𝑉
2 × 0.287 × 103 35 − 20
⇒ Δ𝑃 =
1

⇒ Δ𝑃 = 8.61 × 103 𝑁/𝑚2

Δ𝑃 = 8.61 × 103 𝑁/𝑚2

 Adiabatic Process

• No heat exchange with the surroundings, 𝑄 = 0

𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = Constant (𝐶) 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = Constant 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = Constant (𝐶)

𝛾
𝐶 𝐶
⇒𝑉 = ⇒𝑃= 𝛾
𝑃 𝑉
1
𝐶 𝛾
⇒𝑉= 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝐶
⇒ 𝛾 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
1
𝐶 𝛾 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = Constant
⇒𝑃 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃

𝑃1−𝛾 𝑇 𝛾 = Constant
 8
An ideal gas at 27 ℃ is compressed adiabatically to of its original
27
T 5
volume. The rise in temperature is (Take 𝛾 = )
3
5 8
Given : Adiabatic process, 𝛾= , 𝑇1 = 27 ℃ , 2
𝑉 = 𝑉
3 27 1
To find : ∆𝑇

Solution : For adiabatic process:

𝛾−1
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1
= Constant 𝛾−1 8
300 × 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉
27 1
2
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
⇒ 𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 27 3
𝑇2 = 300
8

𝑇1 = 27 ℃ = 300 𝐾 2
3×3
3
𝑇2 = 300 = 675 𝐾
8 2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
27 1
∴ ∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 675 − 300 = 375 𝐾 ∆𝑇 = 375 𝐾
 A sample of air is kept in a container having walls which are slightly
conducting. The initial temperature and volume are 27 ∘ C and 800 𝑐𝑚3
T
respectively. Find the rise in temperature if the gas is compressed to
200 𝑐𝑚3 (𝑖) in a short time (𝑖𝑖) in a sufficiently long time. [Take 𝛾 = 1.4
and 40.4 = 1.74]

a (𝑖) 522 𝐾 (𝑖𝑖) 0 𝐾

b (𝑖) 0 𝐾 (𝑖𝑖) 522 𝐾

c (𝑖) 222 𝐾 (𝑖𝑖) 0 𝐾

d (𝑖) 0 𝐾 (𝑖𝑖) 222 𝐾

Given:

𝑇1 = 27 ∘ C, 𝑉1 = 800 𝑐𝑚3 𝑉2 = 200 𝑐𝑚3

Take 𝛾 = 1.4 and 40.4 = 1.74
(𝑖) in a short time
When the gas is compressed in a short interval of time, the process can be considered to be adiabatic
Equation of adiabatic process : 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑉2
𝛾−1
= 𝑇1 𝑉1
𝛾−1
𝑉1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑉2
800 0.4
𝑇2 = 300 × = 522 𝐾
200

Rise in temperature, 𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 222 𝐾 222 𝐾

(𝑖𝑖) in a sufficiently long time

When the gas is compressed in a sufficiently long time, process can be considered to be isothermal.

Rise in temperature, 𝛥𝑇 = 0
0𝐾
 The 𝑃 − 𝑉 plots for two gases each undergoing an adiabatic process
are as shown in the figure. The graphs 1 and 2 can correspond to :-

Solution:
Slope of 𝑃 − 𝑉 curve in an adiabatic process
𝑑𝑃 −𝛾𝑃
=
𝑑𝑉 𝑉

More the 𝛾 value, lesser the slope and vice versa

Slope of graph of any two diatomic or monoatomic
gases will be the same
Graph 2 has a higher slope and graph 1 has lower slope.

𝛾𝑑𝑖𝑎 < 𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜

Graph 1 and graph 2 can represent adiabatic

curves for a diatomic and monoatomic gas
respectively
𝑂2 and 𝐻𝑒
 Cyclic process

A cyclic process consists of a series of changes which return the system

back to its initial state.

𝑃 • In case of cyclic process, 𝑈𝑓 = 𝑈𝑖 so

∆𝑈 = 0 i.e., change in Internal energy
𝐴 𝐵
is zero, since ∆𝑇 = 0 (∵ ∆𝑈 ∝ ∆𝑇)
𝑃0

𝐷 𝐶

𝑉
 A gas initially at 𝑃0 , 𝑉0 , 𝑇0 , is isobarically expanded to twice its initial
volume, then isochorically cooled to its original temperature (𝑇0 ) and
T
then isothermally returned to its starting state. Plot the 𝑃 − 𝑉, 𝑃 − 𝑇 and
𝑉 − 𝑇 graphs.
Solution:

𝐴 − B → Isobaric Process 𝐴 − B → Isobaric Process 𝐴 − B → Isobaric Process

𝑃 = Constant 𝑃 = Constant 𝑃 = Constant
𝑉0 → 2V0 𝑉0 → 2V0 ⇒ 𝑇0 → 2T0 𝑉0 → 2V0 ⇒ 𝑇0 → 2T0

𝐵 − C → Isochoric Process 𝐵 − C → Isochoric Process 𝐵 − C → Isochoric Process

𝑉 = Constant 𝑉 = Constant 𝑉 = Constant
𝑇 ↓𝑃↓ 𝑇 ↓𝑃↓ 𝑇 ↓𝑃↓
𝐶 − A → Isothermal Process 𝐶 − A → Isothermal Process 𝐶 − A → Isothermal Process
𝑇 = Constant 𝑇 = Constant 𝑇 = Constant
𝑃↑𝑉↓ 𝑉↓𝑃↑ 𝑉↓𝑃↑
 Internal Energy

It is the energy corresponding to the motion of

molecules/atoms and their interactions.

Molecular Kinetic Energy

Molecular Potential Energy = 0

𝑓 𝑓
𝑈 = 𝐾. 𝐸. + 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑉 ⇒ 𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2 2
 Frame dependence of Internal Energy

• It is the sum of all the energies of molecules in the frame of reference

of the system.

𝑓 𝑓 1
𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 + 𝑀𝑇 𝑣 2
2 2 2
 First Law of Thermodynamics

• A part of heat 𝑑𝑄 provided to the system is used in doing work 𝑑𝑊 against the surrounding.
• The remaining part is used in increasing the internal energy of the system by 𝑑𝑈.

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝑸
Heat supplied Work done
Change in by/on the 𝒅𝑾
to/by the system
Internal Energy of System
the system

• Based on the law of conservation energy.

 Sign Convention

𝑑𝑄

Heat supplied Heat supplied

+𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
to the system by the system
𝑑𝑊

Work done on Work done by

−𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
the system the system
 First Law of Thermodynamics

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊

𝑓
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 + 𝑊𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑓 = Degree of Freedom)
2

Doesn’t depend Depends on the

on the process process

Depends on
the change in
Temperature
 Work done by a Gas

Small work done by the gas,

𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝐴 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑉

𝑊 = න 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥
 Two cylinders 𝐴 and 𝐵 are given. Cylinder 𝐴 has a movable piston,
but in 𝐵 piston is fixed. They are heated such that their
temperature changes by Δ𝑇. Which will take more energy.

Solution :

Δ𝑇 is same for both

⇒ Δ𝑈 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒

For 𝐴,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 ≠ 0

For 𝐵,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0

Using first law of thermodynamics,

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊

⇒ Δ𝑄𝐴 > Δ𝑄𝐵

⇒ Δ𝑄𝐴 > Δ𝑄𝐵 𝐵 will take less energy

 A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 50 N/m2 from a volume
of 10 m3 to a volume of 4 m3 . Heat of 100 J is then added to the gas by
T
heating. Its internal energy is

Given :
∆𝑄 = +100 J, 𝑃 = 50𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑉1 = 10 m3 , 𝑉2 = 4 m3

To find : ∆𝑈

Solution : ΔQ = Δ𝑈 + ΔW = Δ𝑈 + 𝑃Δ𝑉

⇒ 100 = Δ𝑈 + 50(4 − 10)

⇒ Δ𝑈 = 400 𝐽

Increased by 400 𝐽
 Work done in an Isobaric Process

𝑉2
𝑊 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝑛𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
𝑉1

𝑓
Δ𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 + 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇
2

𝑓
Δ𝑄 = + 1 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 Constant Pressure
2

𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 𝑃1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑇2
 An adiabatic cylinder with movable piston at one end is filled with
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 of monoatomic gas at temperature 300 𝐾. If the gas is slowly
T heated to 600 𝐾, then find out the work done by the gas and the
heat energy given to the gas. The surrounding pressure is 𝑃0 .

Given : 𝑛 = 2, 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾, 𝑇2 = 600 𝐾, 𝑃0

To find : 𝑊, Δ𝑄

Solution : 𝑊𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 = 2 × 8.31 × 600 − 300

= 4986 𝐽

𝑓 3
∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 = × 2 × 8.31 × 600 − 300
2 2

= 7479 𝐽

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊 = 12465 𝐽

∆𝑄 = 12.46 𝑘𝐽
 Work done in an Isochoric Process

𝑊 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉

𝑊=0 (Isochoric process)

𝑓
From first law, Δ𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 + 𝑊
2
Constant Volume
𝑓
Δ𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇
2
𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 𝑃2 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇2
 An adiabatic cylinder with fixed piston at one end is filled with
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 of monoatomic gas at temperature 300 𝐾. If the gas is slowly
T heated to 600 𝐾, then find out the work done by the gas and the
heat energy given to the gas. The surrounding pressure is 𝑃0 .

Given : 𝑛 = 2, 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾, 𝑇2 = 600 𝐾, 𝑉1 = 𝑉2

To find : 𝑊, Δ𝑄

Solution : 𝑊𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0 𝐽 Isochoric process

𝑓
∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
2

3
= × 2 × 8.31 × 600 − 300
2

= 7479 𝐽

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊 = 7479 𝐽

∆𝑄 = 7479 𝐽
 Work done in an Isothermal Process

𝑉2
𝑊 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

𝑉2
𝑛𝑅𝑇
= න 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉

𝑉2
1
= 𝑛𝑅𝑇 න 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉
Constant Temperature
Since 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 = constant

𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 , 𝑇1
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉1 𝑃2

From first law, Δ𝑄 = 𝑊 ∵ ∆𝑈 = 0

 Two cylinders 𝐴 and 𝐵 fitted with pistons contain equal amounts
of an ideal diatomic gas at 300 𝐾. The piston of 𝐴 is free to move,
while that of 𝐵 is held fixed. The same amount of heat is given to
the gas in each cylinder. If the rise in temperature of the gas in 𝐴
is 30 𝐾, then the rise in temperature of the gas in 𝐵 is

Given : 𝑛𝐴 = 𝑛𝐵 = 𝑛, 𝑃𝐴 = constant, 𝑉𝐵 = constant, ∆𝑄𝐴 = ∆𝑄𝐵 , ∆𝑇𝐴 = 30 𝐾

𝑓𝐴 = 𝑓𝐵 = 5 (diatomic gases)

To find : ∆𝑇𝐵

Solution : ∆𝑄𝐴 = ∆𝑄𝐵

∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 𝐴 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 𝐵 First law of thermodynamics

𝑓𝐴 𝑓𝐵
𝑛𝑅∆𝑇𝐴 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇𝐴 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇𝐵 + 0
2 2

𝑓𝐴 + 2
∆𝑇𝐵 = ∆𝑇𝐴
𝑓𝐵
∆𝑇𝐵 = 42 𝐾
 Work done in an Adiabatic Process

𝑊 = −∆𝑈 ∵ ∆𝑄 = 0

𝑓
= − 𝑛𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
2

𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
2

Exchange of heat, ∆𝑄 = 0
 In an adiabatic process, 4 g of 𝐻2 gas expands and temperature
changes from 47∘ C to 27∘ C. Find the magnitude of the work done by
T
the gas on the surroundings

Given : 𝑚𝐻2 = 4 g; 𝑇𝑖 = 47∘ C; 𝑇𝑓 = 27∘ C

To find : 𝑊𝑔𝑎𝑠

Solution : For an adiabatic process, 𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑊 + 𝛥𝑈 = 0

𝛥𝑊 = −𝛥𝑈
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

𝛥𝑊 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 )

Number of degrees of freedom 𝑓 = 5

𝑓𝑅 5𝑅
Specific heat capacity at constant volume 𝐶𝑉 = =
2 2

5
𝛥𝑊 = 2 × 2 𝑅 × 47 − 27 = 100𝑅 100𝑅
 Work done in an Adiabatic Process

𝑓
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
2
𝑓
⇒ 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉. . (1)
2
Differentiating, PV = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇
Using (1)
2𝑃
𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = − 𝑑𝑉 Exchange of heat, ∆𝑄 = 0
𝑓
2 2
⇒ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 1 + = −𝑉𝑑𝑃 ∵1+ =𝛾
𝑓 𝑓
⇒ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝛾 = −𝑉𝑑𝑃

𝑉𝑓 𝑃𝑓
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑃 𝛾 𝛾 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
⇒ 𝛾න = −න ⇒ 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖 𝑉 𝑃𝑖 𝑃
 A monoatomic ideal gas, initially at temperature 𝑇1 , is enclosed in a cylinder
fitted with a frictionless piston. The gas is allowed to expand adiabatically to a
temperature 𝑇2 by releasing the piston suddenly. If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are the lengths of
the gas column before and after expansion respectively, then 𝑇1 /𝑇2 is given by

Given : 𝑇1 ⟶ 𝑇2 Adiabatic process , length of the gas column increases from 𝐿1 to 𝐿2

𝑇1
To find : Ratio of in terms of 𝐿1 and 𝐿2
𝑇2

Solution : 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2
𝛾−1

𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
=
𝑇2 𝑉1

𝛾−1
𝐴𝐿2
= Assuming the cross−section area of piston to be 𝐴
𝐴𝐿1

2
𝑇1 𝐿2 3
=
𝑇2 𝐿1
 Neon gas of a given mass expands isothermally to double its original
volume. What should be the fractional decrease in pressure, so that the gas
T when adiabatically compressed from that state, reaches the original state?

Solution : During isothermal process

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃2 2𝑉
𝑃
⇒ 𝑃2 = ...... 1
2
During adiabatic process
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃1 𝑉1
5
Neon gas is monoatomic, So 𝛾=
3
5Τ3 5Τ3
𝑃3 × 2𝑉 = 𝑃1 × 𝑉

−5Τ3
⇒ 𝑃3 = 𝑃1 × 2
𝑃2 −𝑃3
Fractional decrease in pressure =
𝑃2
−5Τ3
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 × 2
=
𝑃2
From 1 , ∆𝑃
𝑃 𝑃2 − 𝑃3 −2Τ3
= 1 − 2−2/3
𝑃1 = 𝑃, 𝑃2 = ⇒ =1− 2 𝑃
2 𝑃2
 Graphical Representation

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉

Area under 𝑃−𝑉 Curve = Work done by gas

 Graphical Representation

Isobaric Process Isochoric Process

𝑊 = 𝑃0 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑊=0

𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑓
Isothermal Process 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln Adiabatic Process 𝑊= (𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 )
𝑉1 𝑃2 2 1 1
 Identify the process 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Solution :

Slope of adiabatic process > Slope of Isothermal Process

𝐴 −Isothermal Process
𝐵 −Adiabatic Process
 Polytropic Process

1
It is a process of the form 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘 or 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑘 ′
𝑥 𝑥

Work done during a Polytropic process is given by:

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊=
1−𝑥

When 𝑥 = 1, When 𝑥 ≠ 1,
𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑉2
𝑊= 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
1−𝑥 𝑉1
 For a process 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = constant of a monatomic gas of 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, if the
temperature is doubled, what will be the work done by the gas?
T
(given, initial temperature is 𝑇0 )

Given : 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = constant, 𝑛 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙, . 𝑇1 = 𝑇0 , 𝑇2 = 2𝑇0

To find : 𝑊𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦

Solution : 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = 𝑐1

𝑃𝑉
3 Work done by the gas during the given
⇒𝑉 2
= 𝑐1 polytropic process,
𝑛𝑅
𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
3 5
⇒ 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑐2 𝑊𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =
1−𝑥

5 2𝑅(2𝑇0 − 𝑇0 )
⇒ 𝑃𝑉 3 = 𝑐3 =
5
1−
3
5
⇒𝑥= 𝑊𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = −3𝑅𝑇0
3
 A gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a movable frictionless piston. Its
initial thermodynamic state at pressure 𝑃𝑖 = 105 𝑃𝑎 and volume 𝑉𝑖 =
T
10−3 𝑚3 changes to a final state at 𝑃𝑓 = 1/32 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑉𝑓 = 8 ×
10−3 𝑚3 in an adiabatic quasi-static process, such that 𝑃3 𝑉 5 =
constant. Consider another thermodynamic process that brings the
system from the same initial state to the same final state in two
steps : an isobaric expansion at 𝑃𝑖 followed by an isochoric
(isovolumetric) process at volume 𝑉𝑓 . The amount of heat supplied
to the system in the two-step process is approximately.

JEE Adv. 2016

a 112 𝐽 c 588 𝐽

b 294 𝐽 d 813 𝐽
Given : 𝑃𝑖 = 105 𝑃𝑎, 𝑃𝑓 = 1/32 × 105 𝑃𝑎 , 𝑉𝑖 = 10−3 𝑚3 , 𝑉𝑓 = 8 × 10−3 𝑚3 , 𝑃3 𝑉 5 =Constant

Solution :

In Adiabatic process, 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 =constant

Given, 𝑃𝑉 5/3 =constant

⇒ 𝛾 = 5/3

Work done during process 1 and 2 is

𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 1/32 × 10−5 × 8 × 10−3 − 105 × 10−3

⇒𝑊= =
1−𝛾 1 − 5/3

⇒ 𝑊 = 112.5 𝐽 Total heat supplied between 1 and 2

In Adiabatic process, Δ𝑄 = 0 ⇒ Δ𝑄1 + Δ𝑄2 = Δ𝑈 + 𝑃𝑖 (𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 )
⇒ Δ𝑈 = −𝑊 = −112.5 𝐽 = −112.5 + 105 8 − 1 × 10−3
⇒ Δ𝑄 = 587.5 J
 Molar Heat Capacity

Heat required to raise the temperature of one

mole of a gas by 1 °𝐶.

It is a process dependent quantity.

∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑛 ∆𝑇

Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑈 + 𝑊

𝑓
𝑛𝑐Δ𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 + 𝑊
2
𝑓𝑅 𝑊
⇒𝑐= +
2 𝑛Δ𝑇
Molar Heat Capacity for isochoric process

𝑓𝑅 𝑊
𝐶= +
2 𝑛Δ𝑇

Isochoric
𝑊=0

𝑓𝑅 0
𝐶𝑣 = +
2 𝑛Δ𝑇

𝑓𝑅
𝐶𝑣 =
2

(𝐶𝑣 −Molar Heat Capacity for

Constant Volume)
Molar Heat Capacity for Isobaric process

𝑓𝑅 𝑊. 𝐷
𝐶= +
2 𝑛Δ𝑇

For Isobaric Process

𝑊. 𝐷 = 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇

𝑓𝑅 𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 𝑓
𝐶𝑝 = + = +1 𝑅
2 𝑛Δ𝑇 2

𝑓
𝐶𝑝 = +1 𝑅
2
Mayer’s Relation

𝑓
𝐶𝑝 = +1 𝑅
2

𝑓𝑅
𝐶𝑣 =
2

𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 (Independent of gas)

𝐶𝑝 2
=𝛾 =1+
𝐶𝑣 𝑓
 Molar Heat Capacity

𝑓 𝑓 2
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = +1 𝑅 𝛾 =1+
2 2 𝑓

3 5 5
Mono – atomic 𝑅 𝑅
2 2 3
Di – atomic & 5 7 7
Tri-atomic 𝑅
2
𝑅
5
2
(Linear)
Tri – atomic 4
3𝑅 4𝑅
(Non-Linear) 3
 A gas mixture consists of 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 of 𝑂2 and 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 of 𝐴𝑟 at
temperature 𝑇. Neglecting all vibrational modes, the total internal
T
energy of the system is

Given : 𝑛𝑂2 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑛𝐴𝑟 = 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 1999

To find : 𝑈

Solution :

𝑓𝑂2 𝑓𝐴𝑟
𝑈= 𝑛𝑂2 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑛 𝑅𝑇
2 2 𝐴𝑟

5 3
⇒𝑈= × 2𝑅𝑇 + × 4𝑅𝑇 = 5𝑅𝑇 + 6𝑅𝑇
2 2

⇒ 𝑈 = 11𝑅𝑇
 If the volume of a monoatomic gas is made double of its initial
volume by three processes : (i) isobaric (ii) isothermal and (iii)
T adiabatic; then find out the work done by the gas in each process.

Given: 𝑃1 = 𝑃0 , . 𝑉2 = 2𝑉0

To find: 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 , 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 , 𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐

Solution:

𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 =
𝛾−1
𝑉2 𝑉 𝛾
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃1 1 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑉2
2𝑉0 =
= 𝑃0 𝑉0 ln 𝛾−1
𝑉0 5
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃0 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉0 3
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 0.693𝑃0 𝑉0 𝑃0 𝑉0 − 𝑃0 2𝑉0
= 𝑃0 2𝑉0 − 𝑉0 2𝑉0
=
5
−1
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃0 𝑉0 3
𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 0.557𝑃0 𝑉0
 For a process 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = constant of a monatomic gas of 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, if the
temperature is doubled, what will be the work done by the gas?
(given, initial temperature is 𝑇0 )

Given: 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = constant, 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑇𝑓 = 2𝑇0

To Find: Work done

Solution: ⇒ 𝑉 2 𝑇 3 = constant

⇒ 𝑃𝑉 5/3 = constant
⇒ 𝑥 = 5/3
𝑛𝑅(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
So, 𝑊. 𝐷. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
1−𝑥
𝑛𝑅(2𝑇0 − T0 )
𝑊. 𝐷. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
5
1−3

𝑊. 𝐷. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = −3𝑅𝑇0
 A cylinder is filled with 𝐻2 and 𝐻𝑒 filled in two equal chambers separated by a
movable piston. 𝐻2 chamber is slowly heated with a coil heater. If the final volume
of 𝐻𝑒 chamber is 1/8𝑡ℎ of the initial volume. Find the heat given to the system.

Solution:
5/3
𝑉0 5/3
𝑃2 = 𝑃0 𝑉0
8

𝑃2 = 32𝑃0

𝑓 𝑓
∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
2 2

5 15 5 59𝑃0 𝑉0 9𝑃0 𝑉0
∆𝑈 = 32𝑃0 × 𝑉0 − 𝑃0 𝑉0 = × 59𝑉0 𝑃0 ∆𝑄 = 5 × +
2 8 2 2 2

Work done by 𝐻2 on piston = − Work done by 𝐻𝑒 on piston 𝑃0 𝑉0

∆𝑄 = 295 + 9
2
𝑉0
𝑃0 𝑉0 − 32𝑃0 3𝑃0 𝑉0 9𝑃0 𝑉0
− 8 =− =
5 2 2 ∆𝑄 = 152𝑃0 𝑉0
−1 3
3
 Molar Heat Capacity

For Any General Process

𝑃𝑉 𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑓 𝑊. 𝐷
𝑐= 𝑅+
𝑛𝑅Δ𝑇 2 𝑛Δ𝑇
𝑊. 𝐷 =
1−𝑥
𝑓 𝑛Δ𝑇𝑅
𝑐= 𝑅+
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊 2 𝑛Δ𝑇(1 − 𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓𝑅 𝑅
𝑛𝑐𝑑𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑐= +
2 2 (1 − 𝑥)

𝑓 𝑅 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑐= 𝑅+ 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑉 + .
2 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑛 𝑑𝑡
 Molar heat capacity values to remember

𝑓 𝑓 2
𝑐𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑃 = +1 𝑅 𝛾 =1+
2 2 𝑓

Mono – atomic 3 5 5
𝑅 𝑅
2 2 3

Di – atomic
5 7 7
& Tri-atomic 𝑅 𝑅
linear 2 2 5

Tri – atomic 4
3𝑅 4𝑅
(Non-linear) 3
 An ideal gas undergoes a process where 𝑇 = 𝑇0 𝑒 𝛼𝑉 . Find out the Molar
specific heat capacity for this process if molar-specific heat capacity at
constant volume is 𝐶𝑉 .

Solution:
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑇 = 𝑇0 𝑒 𝛼𝑉
𝑓
𝑛𝐶𝑑𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑇
2 = 𝑇0 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑉
𝑑𝑉
𝑓 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝐶= 𝑅+
2 𝑛 𝑑𝑇

𝑃 1
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 + ×
𝑛 𝑇0 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑉

1 𝑃
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 + × (Using, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇)
𝑛𝛼 𝑇

𝑅
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 +
𝛼𝑉
 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝑽 for Mixture of Gases

For mixture of 𝑛 non–reacting gases:

𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑈3 + ⋯

𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑛1 𝐶𝑉1 𝑇 + 𝑛2 𝐶𝑉2 𝑇 + ⋯

𝑛1 𝐶𝑉 1 + 𝑛2 𝐶𝑉 2 + 𝑛3 𝐶𝑉 3 + ⋯
𝐶𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝐶𝑃1 , 𝐶𝑉1 , 𝑛1 𝐶𝑃2 , 𝐶𝑉2 , 𝑛2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯

𝑛1 𝐶𝑃 1 + 𝑛2 𝐶𝑃 2 + 𝑛3 𝐶𝑃 3 + ⋯
𝐶𝑃 𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯

𝐶𝑃 𝑚𝑖𝑥
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝐶𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑥
 A thermodynamic process is shown in the figure. In process 𝐴𝐵, 600 𝐽 of heat is
added to the system and in process 𝐵𝐶, 200 𝐽 of heat is added to the system.
The change in internal energy of the system is process 𝐴𝐶 would be:

Solution:

𝑄𝐴𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴𝐵 + 𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 800 𝐽

𝐴𝐵 Isochoric process, 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0

𝐵𝐶 Isobaric process:

𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵 = 240 𝐽

∴ 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 240 𝐽

Using FLOT:

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊

∆𝑈𝐴𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴𝐶 − 𝑊𝐴𝐶

∆𝑈𝐴𝐶 = 560 𝐽
 An oxygen molecule is travelling in air at 300 𝐾 and 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, and the
diameter of oxygen molecule is 1.2 × 10−10 𝑚. Calculate the mean free
path of oxygen molecule.

Given: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, T = 300 𝐾, d = 1.2 × 10−10 𝑚

To Find: 𝜆
1
Solution: 𝜆 =
2𝑛𝜋𝑑2

𝑁 𝑃 101.3 × 103
𝑛= = = −23
= 2.449 × 1025
𝑉 𝑘𝑇 1.381 × 10 × 300

1 1
𝜆= =
2 × 2.449 × 1025 × 𝜋 × 1.2 × 10−10 2 15.65 × 105

𝜆 = 0.63 × 10−6 𝑚
 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐶𝑉 are specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume
respectively. It is observed that
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑎 for hydrogen gas
T
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑏 for nitrogen gas
The correct relation between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is JEE MAIN 2017
Solution:
As we know,
𝑅 𝐶𝑃 , 𝐶𝑉 → specific heat capacities (𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = …………………….
𝑀 𝑀 → Molar mass of the gas

For hydrogen(𝐻2 ) (𝑀 = 2)
𝑅
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑎 =
2

For nitrogen(𝑁2 ) (𝑀 = 28)

𝑅
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑏 =
28
𝑎
= 14 ⟹ 𝑎 = 14𝑏
𝑏
 Cyclic Process

𝐴 𝐵
𝑃 Initial state = Final state
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑓

∆𝑈𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0

𝑄=𝑊
𝐶
𝐷

𝑉
 Work done in Cyclic Process

𝐴 𝐵 Net work done = Area of loop

𝑃

𝑄=𝑊

𝐶
𝐷

𝑉
 Sign of Work Done in Cyclic Process

Net positive work Net negative work

If the cycle is clockwise. If the cycle is anticlockwise

𝑃 − 𝑉 curve:

Net negative work Net positive work

If the cycle is clockwise. If the cycle is anticlockwise

𝑉 − 𝑃 curve:
 A gas is taken through the cycle 𝐴 → 𝐵 → 𝐶 → 𝐴, as shown. What is the net
T work done by the gas?

Solution:

In a cyclic process:

𝑊 = area under the cycle

& 𝑊 is positive for clockwise cycle.

𝑊 = Area of the cycle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐴

1
𝑊 = (7 − 2) × 10−3 6 − 2 × 105
2

𝑊 = 1000 𝐽
 A thermodynamic system undergoes cyclic process 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴 as shown in the
T figure. The work done by the system in the cycle is:

Solution:
1
Work 𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐴 = +ve area of ∆𝐴𝐸𝐷 = 𝑃𝑉
2 0 0

1
Work 𝐵𝐶𝐸𝐵 = −ve area of ∆𝐵𝐶𝐸 = − 𝑃0 𝑉0
2

Net work = Work 𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐴 + Work 𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐴

Net work = 0
 A thermodynamic process is shown in the figure. In process 𝐴𝐵, 600 𝐽 of heat is
added to the system and in process 𝐵𝐶, 200 𝐽 of heat is added to the system.
T
The change in internal energy of the system is process 𝐴𝐶 would be:

Solution:

𝑄𝐴𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴𝐵 + 𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 800 𝐽

𝐴𝐵 Isochoric process, 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0

𝐵𝐶 Isobaric process:

𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵 = 240 𝐽

∴ 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 240 𝐽

Using FLOT:

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊

∆𝑈𝐴𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴𝐶 − 𝑊𝐴𝐶

∆𝑈𝐴𝐶 = 560 𝐽
 Efficiency of a Cycle

Work done by cycle

𝜂= × 100 %
Heat given to the cycle
 Carnot Cycle

𝑃 Isothermal Processes:

𝑃𝐴
𝐴 𝐴 𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵 Expansion
𝐵
𝑃𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑉𝐷 Compression

𝑃𝐷
Adiabatic Processes:
𝑃𝐶
𝐷 𝐶 𝛾 𝛾
𝐵 𝐶 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶 Expansion
𝛾 𝛾
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶 𝑉 𝐷 𝐴 𝑃𝐷 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 Compression
 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle
• Reversible Process
• Ideal gas is used

𝑊net = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝑊4
𝑉𝐷
𝑇2 𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝐵 𝑛𝑅 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑇𝐻 𝜂 = 1+ × × 100
𝑊net = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐻 ln + 𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐴 1−𝛾 𝑉𝐴

Isothermal Process 𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑅 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
+𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln + 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐷
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶 1−𝛾
𝐴 𝐵 But, =
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶
𝐶 𝐷 𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐷
Adiabatic Process 𝑊net = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐻 ln + 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐶
𝛾 𝛾
𝐵 𝐶 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶
𝑊net 𝑇𝐿 𝑄2
𝛾 𝛾 𝜂= × 100 𝜂 = 1− × 100 = 1 − × 100
𝐷 𝐴 𝑃𝐷 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑇𝐻 𝑄1
Heat Given
 If the system takes 100 𝑐𝑎𝑙 heat and releases 80 𝑐𝑎𝑙 to sink. If the source
T temperature is 127 ℃, find the sink temperature.

𝑄1 = +100 𝑐𝑎𝑙, 𝑄2 = −80 𝑐𝑎𝑙, 𝑇1 = 127 ℃ = 400 𝐾

For the ideal heat engine,

𝑄1 𝑇1
=
𝑄2 𝑇2

100 400
⇒ =
80 𝑇2

⇒ 𝑇2 = 320 𝐾

⇒ 𝑇2 = 47 ℃
 Refrigerator

Sudden expansion
(Adiabatic) 𝑉 ↑ 𝑇 ↓
𝑇1 < 0o 𝐶

(𝑇𝐻 ) Heat
dissipation
Surrounding
Absorbs heat temperature(𝑇𝑆 )

(𝑇𝐿 ) 0o 𝐶

Compressor 𝑇2 > 𝑇𝑆
 Coefficient of Performance

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄2
𝛽= =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊. 𝐷
(𝑇𝐻 )
𝑄2
𝛽=
𝑄1 − 𝑄2

𝑄2 /𝑄1
𝛽=
1 − 𝑄2 /𝑄1

(𝑇𝐿 ) 𝑇𝐿 /𝑇𝐻
𝛽=
1 − 𝑇𝐿 /𝑇𝐻

𝑇𝐿
Coefficient of Performance, 𝛽 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
 Relation between 𝜷 and 𝜼

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
We know, 𝛽= 𝜂 = 1−
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻

𝑇𝐿 /𝑇𝐻
𝛽=
1 − 𝑇𝐿 /𝑇𝐻

𝑇𝐿
But, = 1−𝜂
𝑇𝐻

1−𝜂
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿 𝛽=
𝜂 = 1− 𝛽= 1− 1−𝜂
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿

1−𝜂
𝛽=
𝜂
 The temperature inside a refrigerator is 𝑡2 °C and the room temperature is
T
𝑡1 °C. The amount of heat delivered to the room for each joule of electrical
energy consumed ideally will be

𝑄2 𝑇𝐿
𝛽= =
𝑊. 𝐷 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿

𝑡2 + 273
⇒ 𝑄2 = × 𝑊. 𝐷
𝑡1 − 𝑡2

Also,

𝑊. 𝐷 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

𝑡2 + 273
⇒ 𝑄1 = 𝑊. 𝐷 + 𝑄2 = 𝑊. 𝐷 + × 𝑊. 𝐷
𝑡1 − 𝑡2

𝑄1 𝑡1 + 273
⇒ =
𝑊. 𝐷 𝑡1 − 𝑡2
 Free Expansion

• Sudden expansion (Adiabatic Process)

• If the piston is released, then the
acceleration, 𝑎 = ∞

𝑊𝐷 = 0
Δ𝑄 = 0
Δ𝑈 = 0
Δ𝑉 ≠ 0
Δ𝑃 ≠ 0
 One mole of a monoatomic ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic
expansion in which its volume becomes eight times its initial value.
T
If the initial temperature of the gas is 100 𝐾 and the universal gas
constant, 𝑅 = 8.0 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 , the decrease in its internal energy in 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
is….. (𝐽𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐷𝑉 2018)

Given:
𝑉2 = 8𝑉1 , 𝑇1 = 100 𝐾, 𝑅 = 8.0 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 Change in Internal Energy:

Monoatomic gas → 𝛾 = 5/3

Δ𝑢 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 Δ𝑇
To Find: Δ𝑢 3 𝑇 3𝑅
=𝑛 𝑅 −𝑇 ∵ 𝐶𝑣 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 =
2 4 2
Solution:
3 3
For adiabatic process: Δ𝑢 = 1 × × 8 × − × 100
2 4
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑇2 8𝑉 𝛾−1
⇒ 𝑇2 = 𝑇/4
Δ𝑢 = −900 𝐽
 A Carnot engine whose sink is at 300 𝐾 has an efficiency of 40 %.
By how much should the temperature of source be increased so
as to increase its efficiency by 50 % of original?

Solution:
Given:
Initial temperature of the source = 𝑇𝐻
Temperature of sink, 𝑇𝐿 = 300 𝐾
𝑇𝐿
Original Efficiency, 𝜂 = 40 % 𝜂 =1−
𝑇𝐻

300
To Find: 0.4 = 1 − ⇒ 𝑇𝐻 = 500 𝐾
𝑇𝐻
Increase in the source temperature ∆𝑇𝐻 = ?
Efficiency of the engine is increased by 50 %

𝜂 ′ = 40 % + 20 % = 60 %

𝑇𝐿
𝜂′ = 1 −
𝑇𝐻 ′

300 ′
0.6 = 1 − ′ ⇒ 𝑇𝐻 = 750 𝐾
𝑇𝐻

Δ𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝐻 ′ − 𝑇𝐻 Δ𝑇𝐻 = 250 𝐾

 Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Kelvin-Planck statement - No process is possible whose sole

result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
complete conversion of the heat into work.

• Clausius statement - No process is possible whose sole result is

the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.