Lecture 2

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Convection
 Definition
Convection is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.
air air

Hot egg Hot egg

Free convection Forced convection

 Concepts
𝑦 𝑦 𝑇𝑓

Velocity profile Temperature profile

Fluid flow
𝑞

𝑇𝑠
𝑣 𝑇
Hot block

The higher rate of mass flow is, the higher heat flux is
 Newton’s law
𝑑𝑄
𝑞= = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑑𝐴𝑑𝜏
Where:
𝑞: heat flux 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
ℎ: convection heat transfer coefficient 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . 𝐾

• Convection heat transfer coefficient ℎ is not a

property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all the variables that
influence convection such as surface geometry, fluid
motion, properties of fluid. It is difficult for analytical
method as conduction.
 Problem statement
𝑦 𝑦 𝑇𝑓

Velocity profile Temperature profile

Fluid flow 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘 𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝜕𝑦

𝑇𝑠
𝑣 𝑇
Hot block

In thermal layer, heat flux obeys the Fourier’s law, then

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 ℎ
−𝑘 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 or = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑘
 Problem statement

Heat flux &

Temperature
profile

Temperature Convection
profile coefficient
 Problem statement
The evaluation of convection coefficient ℎ becomes
the key problem of convection heat transfer
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑇∗ =
𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑇 ∗
൝
∗
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐿𝑑𝑦 ∗
𝑦 =
𝐿 Dimensionless form
𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑇 ∗ ℎ𝐿 𝑑𝑇 ∗
= 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑠 = or =
𝑑𝑦 𝑘 𝐿 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑘 𝑑𝑦 ∗
The convection coefficient ℎ can be Nusselt number
evaluated through Nusselt number
 How to solve the problem ?
The problem can be solved by dimensional analysis
method combined to experimental data.
• Construct the similar objects (pilot)
• Collect the experimental data from the pilot
• Establish the empirical relations in dimensionless form
• These empirical relations can be applied to the real
objects in a certain condition
 How to solve the problem ?
• Shape 𝜀
Geometry • Dimension 𝐿
• Position in space

• Interaction direction 𝜙
• Heat flux direction 𝜑

Direction
ℎ Temperature

• Fluid temperature 𝑇𝑓
• Surface temperature 𝑇𝑠

• Thermal conductivity 𝑘 Fluid

• Viscosity 𝜇 , velocity 𝑣 properties
• Density 𝜌 , heat capacity 𝑐𝑝 …
 Estimation of ℎ

Free convection of gases

Forced convection of gases
Free convection of liquids
Forced convection of liquids

Convection in boiling &

condensation

2 25 50 250 1000 2500 2 × 104 10 × 104

ℎ 𝑊 Τ𝑚 2 . 𝐾
Dimensional analysis
 What is dimension ?
Quantity Symbol Unit (SI) Dimension
Length 𝐿, 𝑥 𝑚 𝐿
Mass 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑀
Time 𝜏 𝑠 𝑇
Temperature 𝑇 𝐾 Θ
Area 𝐴 𝑚2 𝐿2
Volume 𝑉 𝑚3 𝐿3
Velocity 𝑣 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 𝐿𝑇 −1
Acceleration 𝑎, 𝑔 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 𝐿𝑇 −2
Density 𝜌 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 𝑀𝐿−3
Mass flowrate 𝑚 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑇 −1
Force 𝐹 𝑁 or 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
Surface tension 𝜎 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 −2 𝑀𝑇 −2
 What is dimension ?
Quantity Symbol Unit (SI) Dimension
Pressure 𝑝 𝑃𝑎 or 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−1 . 𝑠 −2 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
Energy (heat, work) 𝑄, 𝑊 𝐽 or 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2 . 𝑠 −2 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
Power 𝑃 𝑊 or 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2 . 𝑠 −3 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3
Absolute viscosity 𝜇 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−1 . 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 𝑚2 . 𝑠 −1 𝐿2 𝑇 −1
Specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑝 𝑚2 . 𝑠 −2 . 𝐾 −1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Θ−1
Thermal conductivity 𝑘 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −3 . 𝐾 −1 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 Θ−1
Thermal diffusivity 𝑎 𝑚2 . 𝑠 −1 𝐿2 𝑇 −1
Thermal resistance 𝑅 𝑘𝑔−1 . 𝐿−2 . 𝑠 3 . 𝐾 𝑀−1 𝐿−2 𝑇 3 Θ
Convection heat transfer coefficient ℎ 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 −3 . 𝐾 −1 𝑀𝑇 −3 Θ−1
 Dimensionless groups
Group Definition Interpretation
𝜌𝑣𝐿
Reynolds 𝑅𝑒 = Ratio of inertia to viscous forces
𝜇
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝜌2 𝐿3
Grashof 𝐺𝑟 = Ratio of buoyancy to viscous forces
𝜇2
2𝜎 Ratio of surface shear stress to free stream kinetic
Drag coefficient 𝐶𝑓 = 2
𝜌𝑣 energy
2∆𝑝 𝑑 Dimensionless pressure drop for internal flow through
Friction factor 𝑓=
𝜌𝑣 2 𝐿 ducts
𝑣
Mach 𝑀= Ratio of flow velocity to the local speed of sound
𝑎

𝐿 is the characteristic dimension

 Dimensionless groups
Group Definition Interpretation
𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝜈 Ratio of molecular momentum diffusivity to thermal
Prandtl 𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘 𝑎 diffusivity
Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient; ratio of
ℎ𝐿
Nusselt 𝑁𝑢 = convection heat transfer to conduction in a fluid layer of
𝑘 thickness 𝐿
𝑎𝜏 Dimensionless time; ratio of rate of heat conduction to
Fourier 𝐹𝑜 = 2
𝐿 rate of internal energy storage in a solid
ℎ𝐿 Ratio of internal thermal resistance of a solid body to its
Biot 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘 surface thermal resistance
ℎ 𝑁𝑢
Stanton 𝑆𝑡 = = Dimensionless heat transfer
𝜌𝑣𝑐𝑝 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
Colburn 𝑗 factor 𝑗 = 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
𝑣2 Kinetic energy of flow relative to boundary layer
Eckert 𝐸𝑐 =
𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 enthalpy difference
 Dimensionless groups
Group Definition Interpretation
Peclet 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 Product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers
Rayleigh 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 Product of Grashof and Prandtl numbers
𝑑
Graetz 𝐺𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 Extension of Peclet number
𝐿
 Significance of empirical relations
The effect of various parameters on the convection
coefficient in laminar flow over a flat plate is as below:
𝑁𝑢 = 0.664𝑅𝑒 1Τ2 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
1Τ2 1Τ3
ℎ𝐿 𝑣𝜌𝐿 𝑐𝜇
= 0.664
𝑘 𝜇 𝑘

or ℎ = 0.664𝑘 2Τ3 𝑣 1Τ2 𝜌1Τ2 𝑐 1Τ3 𝐿−1Τ2 𝜇 −1Τ6

2Τ3 1Τ2 1Τ2 1Τ3 1Τ2 1Τ6
ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑣2 𝜌2 𝑐2 𝐿1 𝜇1
or =
ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑣1 𝜌1 𝑐1 𝐿2 𝜇2
 Significance of empirical relations
1. The convection coefficient varies directly as 2Τ3 power of thermal
conductivity.
2. The convection coefficient varies directly as the square root of
stream velocity.
3. The effect of density variation is similar to that of stream velocity.
4. The convection coefficient is directly proportional to 1Τ3 power of
specific heat capacity.
5. The convection coefficient reduces with length as the square root of
the ratio.
6. Dynamic viscosity has also an inverse relation to 1Τ3 power.
 Free convection
in opened spaces
 Equation by Mikheeva
𝑛
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑛

ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢: Nusselt number, 𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
𝑔𝛽 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑓 𝐿3
𝐺𝑟: Grashof number, 𝐺𝑟 =
𝜈2
𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝜈
𝑃𝑟: Prandtl number, 𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘 𝑎
𝑅𝑎: Rayleigh number, 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟
1
ℎ, 𝑘, 𝜈, 𝛽, 𝜇, 𝑎 are determined at 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑓
2
For vertical plate, 𝐿 is the height of the plate
For horizontal cylinder, 𝐿 is the diameter 𝑑
 Equation by Mikheeva
Geometry 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 𝑪 𝒏
10−1 ÷ 104 Fig. 1
104 ÷ 109 0.59 0.25
Vertical plates and cylinders
9 13
0.021 0.4
10 ÷ 10
0.1 1Τ3
0 ÷ 10−5 0.4 0
10−5 ÷ 104 Fig. 2
104 ÷ 109 0.53 0.25
109 ÷ 1012 0.13 1Τ3
Horizontal cylinders 10−10 ÷ 10−2 0.675 0.058
10−2 ÷ 102 1.02 0.148
102 ÷ 104 0.850 0.188
104 ÷ 107 0.480 0.25
107 ÷ 1012 0.125 1Τ3
 Equation by Mikheeva

Geometry 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 𝑪 𝒏
Upper surface of heated plates 2 × 104 ÷ 800 × 104 0.54 0.25
(or lower surface of cooled plates) 800 × 104 ÷ 1011 0.15 1Τ3
Lower surface of heated plates
105 ÷ 1011 0.27 0.25
(or upper surface of cooled plates)
Vertical cylinder (height = diameter)
104 ÷ 106 0.775 0.21
Horizontal cylinder (length = diameter)
Irregular solids (length = distance fluid
104 ÷ 109 0.52 0.25
particle travels in boundary layer)
 Equation by Mikheeva
1000
𝑁𝑢

100
Figure 1

10

𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟 ∙ 𝑃𝑟
10−1 10 104 108 1012
 Equation by Mikheeva
10000
𝑁𝑢

1000
Figure 2

100

10

𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟 ∙ 𝑃𝑟
0.1 −10
10 10−7 10−4 1 103 106 109 1012
 Equation by Churchill & Chu
• For vertical plates and cylinders

1Τ6 2
0.387𝑅𝑎
𝑁𝑢 = 0.825 +
9Τ16 8Τ27
0.492
1+
𝑃𝑟

𝑅𝑎 = 10−1 ÷ 1012
 Equation by Churchill & Chu
• For horizontal plates and cylinders

1Τ6 2
0.387𝑅𝑎
𝑁𝑢 = 0.6 +
9Τ16 8Τ27
0.559
1+
𝑃𝑟

𝑅𝑎 = 10−5 ÷ 1012
 Equation by Fujii & Imura
• For inclined plates with positive angles
0.25
𝑁𝑢 = 0.56 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜃
𝜃 < 88°
+ ቊ
𝑅𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 105 ÷ 1011

0.2
𝑁𝑢 = 0.58 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟
𝜃 = 88° ÷ 90°
ቊ
Heated surface 𝑅𝑎 = 106 ÷ 1011

Fluid properties are determined at 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 0.25 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓

 Equation by Fujii & Imura
• For inclined plates with negative angles

𝑁𝑢 = 0.14 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 − 𝐺𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 + 0.56 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 cos 𝜃 0.25

𝜃 = −75° ÷ −15°
𝜃 ቊ
𝑅𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 105 ÷ 1011
− Heated surface
Angel 𝜽 ° 𝑮𝒓𝒄 (critical Grashof)
−15 5 × 109
−30 2 × 109
−60 108
−75 106
 Equations for air

Laminar Turbulent
Geometry
𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 ÷ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 > 𝟏𝟎𝟗
0.25
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 1 Τ3
Vertical plates and cylinders ℎ = 1.42 ℎ = 1.31 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝐿
0.25
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 1 Τ3
Horizontal cylinders ℎ = 1.32 ℎ = 1.24 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑑
0.25
Horizontal heated plate facing upward 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 1 Τ3
(or cooled plate facing downward) ℎ = 1.32 ℎ = 1.52 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝐿
0.25
Horizontal eated plate facing downward 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
(or cooled plate facing upward) ℎ = 0.59
𝐿
0.25
Heated cube (𝐿 is length of side, Area is 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
6𝐿2 ) ℎ = 1.052
𝐿
 Equations for spheres
• Equation by Yuge
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + 0.43 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 0.25
𝐺𝑟 = 1 ÷ 105

• Equation by Amato & Tien

0.25 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 3 × 105 ÷ 8 × 108
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + 0.5 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟

• Equation by Churchill
0.25
0.589 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑎 < 1011
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + ቊ
9Τ16 4Τ9 𝑃𝑟 > 0.5
0.469
1+
𝑃𝑟
 Free convection
in enclosed spaces
 Equations by MacGregor & Emery
• For vertical gap
−0,3 𝑇1 𝑇2
0.25 𝑃𝑟 0.012
𝐿
𝑁𝑢 = 0.42 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟
𝛿
𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 104 ÷ 107
𝑃𝑟 = 1 ÷ 2 × 104 𝑞
𝐿 𝐿
= 10 ÷ 40
𝛿

𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 106 ÷ 109

1Τ3 𝑃𝑟 = 1 ÷ 20
𝑁𝑢 = 0.46 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 𝐿 𝛿
= 1 ÷ 40 Characteristic dimension
𝛿
 Equation by Evans & Stefany

• For vertical, horizontal cylinders or inclined gap

0.25
𝑁𝑢 = 0.55 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟

𝐿
= 0.75 ÷ 2
𝑑
 Equation by Eckert

• For vertical gap with air

0.3
𝐻
𝑁𝑢 = 0.119𝐺𝑟
𝛿
 Other equations

𝑁𝑢 = 1; 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 < 103

൞𝑁𝑢 = 0.105 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 0.3 ; 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 103 ÷ 106
𝑁𝑢 = 0.4 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 0.2 ; 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 106 ÷ 1010
 Other equations
• For horizontal gap with air

𝑁𝑢 = 0.195𝐺𝑟 0.25 ; 𝐺𝑟 = 104 ÷ 105

൝
𝑁𝑢 = 0.068𝐺𝑟 1Τ3 ; 𝐺𝑟 = 4 × 105

• For horizontal gap with liquids

𝑁𝑢 = 0.069𝐺𝑟 1Τ3 𝑃𝑟 0.407
𝑃𝑟 = 0.02 ÷ 8750
ቊ
𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 3 × 105 ÷ 7 × 109
 General relation Effective thermal
conductivity

𝑁𝑢𝑘 𝑘𝑒
𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝛿 𝑚
𝛿
𝑘𝑒 𝑛
𝐿
= 𝐶 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟
𝑘 𝛿
𝑳
Fluid Geometry 𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 𝑷𝒓 𝑪 𝒏 𝒎
𝜹
< 2000 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘 (pure conduction)
6 × 103 ÷ 200 × 103 0.5 ÷ 2 11 ÷ 42 0.197 0.25 − 1Τ9
Vertical plates
1
0.2 × 106 ÷ 11 × 106 0.5 ÷ 2 11 ÷ 42 0.073 − 1Τ9
3
Gas
< 1700 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘 (pure conduction)
Horizontal 1700 ÷ 7000 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.059 0.4 0
plates, heated
from below 7 × 103 ÷ 320 × 103 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.212 0.25 0
> 320 × 103 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.061 1Τ3 0
 General relation
𝑳
Fluid Geometry 𝑮𝒓𝑷𝒓 𝑷𝒓 𝑪 𝒏 𝒎
𝜹
< 2000 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘 (pure conduction)
Vertical plates 104 ÷ 107 1 ÷ 20000 10 ÷ 40 Eq. by Churchill for spheres

106 ÷ 109 1 ÷ 20 1 ÷ 40 0.046 1Τ3 0

< 1700 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘 (pure conduction)
Liquid
Horizontal plate, 1700 ÷ 6000 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.012 0.6 0
heated from 6000 ÷ 37 × 103 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.375 0.2 0
below 37 × 103 ÷ 108 1 ÷ 20 – 0.13 0.3 0
> 108 1 ÷ 20 – 0.057 1Τ3 0
Vertical annulus Same as vertical plates
Gas 6000 ÷ 106 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.11 0.29 0
Horizontal
or
annulus 106 ÷ 108 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.40 0.20 0
Liquid
Spherical annulus 120 ÷ 11 × 108 0.7 ÷ 4000 – 0.228 0.226 0