FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID FLOWS
Discharge or flow rate
Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time. This
is expressed as mass flow rate, weight flow rate, or volume flow rate.
Volume flow rate, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
Mass flow rate, 𝑀 = ρ𝑄
Weight flow rate, 𝑊 = ϒ𝑄
Where:
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠 or 𝑠

𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡 2

𝑣 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 or ft/s
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
ρ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡 3

ϒ = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 𝑚3 or 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
Definition
■ Steady flow – this occurs when the discharge Q passing a given cross-section is
constant with time. If the flow Q at the cross-section varies with time, the flow is
unsteady
■ Uniform flow – This occurs if, with steady flow for a given length, or reach, of a
stream, the average velocity of flow is the same every cross-section. This usually
occurs when an incompressible fluid flows through a stream with uniform cross-
section. In stream where the cross-section and velocity changes, the flow is non-
uniform
■ Continuous flow – occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every section of the
stream is the same
for incompressible fluids (𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 )
for compressible fluids (ρ1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = ρ2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = ρ3 𝐴3 𝑣3 )
Definition
■ Laminar flow – the flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid
particles do not cross or intersect. The flow is always laminar when Reynolds
number, Re is less than (approximately) 2,100.
■ Turbulent flow – when the path of the individual particles are irregular and
continuously cross each other. Turbulent flow normally occurs when Re exceeds
2,100
■ One-dimensional flow – occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and
magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical
■ Two-dimensional- occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes
and the stream line patterns are identical in each plane.
■ Streamlines – these are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the
direction of motion in various section of the flow of the fluid system
Definition
■ Streamtubes – these represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a
group of streamlines which confine the flow
■ Flow Nets – These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional
flow, or even three-dimensional flow
ENERGY AND HEAD

The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the
potential energy. Potential energy may in turn be subdivided into energy
due to position or elevation above a given datum, and energy due to
pressure in the fluid. The amount of energy per pound or Newton of fluid
is called the head.
Kinetic Energy
The ability of a fluid mass to do work by virtue of velocity.

1 𝑊𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑔
𝐾𝐸 𝑣2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑊 2𝑔
For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full;
𝑄 2
𝑣 2 ( ) 𝑄2 𝑄2
= 𝐴 = =
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴 2𝑔(π 𝐷 2 )
4

𝑣2 8𝑄 2
=
2𝑔 π2 𝑔𝐷 4
Elevation Energy (Potential Energy)

The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to a
datum plane.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =𝑧
𝑊
Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)

Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which has small opening at the top. Without
pressure at the top, the fluid practically will not flow. The equivalent head (pressure
head) for a pressure is p/𝛾. Hence the pressure energy is equivalent to;

𝑝
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊
𝛾

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑊 𝛾
Total flow energy

The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.
It can be summarized as;
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸

𝑣2 𝑝
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐸 = + +𝑧
2𝑔 𝛾
Power and efficiency
Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit 𝛾 (𝑁/𝑚3 ) and moving at a
rate 𝑄 (𝑚3 /𝑠) with a total energy of 𝐸 (𝑚), the power in N-m/s or watts is;

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜼 = 𝑥 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Note; 1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts

1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 lb-ft/s
1 Watt = 1 Joule/s
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
The Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem results from the application of the principles of conservation
of energy.
It states that the total energy in a steadily flowing fluid system is a constant along the flow
path. An increase in the fluid’s speed must therefore be match by a decrease in its pressure.
It can be summarized as follows;

𝐸𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 + 𝐸𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2

Energy equation without head lost

If the fluid experiences no head lost in moving from section 1 to section 2 then the total
energy at section 1 must be equal to the total energy at section 2. neglecting head lost
in fluid flow, the values that we get are called ideal or theoretical values.

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Energy equation with head lost

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual values

𝐸1 −𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Pump
Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually to raise water from a lower to a higher
elevation). The input power (𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ) of the pump is the electrical energy and its output power
(𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ) is the flow of energy.

𝐸1 +𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + +𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Turbine or motor
Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn converted into
electrical energy for turbines

𝐸1 −𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2 + 𝐻𝐸

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + +𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 +𝐻𝐿1−2 +𝐻𝐸
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
Also known as the pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical
representation of the total energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in
successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the
𝑝
datum plane is + 𝑧
𝛾
Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to EGL
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any
two points is also equal to the head lost between these points
ENERGY GRADE LINE
Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy
2
of flow (the sum of kinetic
𝑣 𝑝
and potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane is + + 𝑧.
2𝑔 𝛾

Characteristics of EGL
• EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the presence
of a pump
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between these points
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to HGL
𝑣2
• Egl is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head (2𝑔)
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal