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PRINCIPLES
of
TURBOMACHINERY
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Lecture Outlines
❖ Definitions
❖ Stagnation Properties
▪ Stagnation point
▪ Stagnation pressure
▪ Stagnation enthalpy
▪ Stagnation temperature
❖ Mach number
❖ Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
❖ Gas Turbines
▪ Introduction
▪ History of gas turbines
▪ The most important parts of gas turbines
▪ A Comparison between the gas turbine and other thermal engines
▪ Classification of gas turbines
▪ The Ideal Brayton Cycle
▪ Homework (2)
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Definitions (1)
The enthalpy: is a property of a thermodynamic system. The enthalpy of a system is equal to the
system's internal energy plus the product of its pressure and volume.
The enthalpy of a thermodynamic system is defined as
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉
Where
H is the enthalpy of the system,
U is the internal energy of the system,
p is the pressure of the system,
V is the volume of the system.
Entropy: it is a measure of molecular disorder or molecular randomness.
Isentropic process: a process during which the entropy remains constant (S=const.)
Irreversible processes are processes which, once having taken place in a system, cannot spontaneously
reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state.
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Definitions (2)

Ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.

Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. Reversible processes are idealized processes, and they can be approached but never reached
in reality.

Diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by decreasing the fluid velocity.
Cycle is a process, or series of processes, that allows a system to undergo state changes and returns the
system to the initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are
identical.
Combustion is a chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is
released.
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Definitions (3)
Adiabatic process is a process during which there is no heat transfer. The word adiabatic comes from
the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.
Turbine is a device that produces shaft work due to a decrease of enthalpy, kinetic, and potential energies
of a flowing fluid.
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of desired result for an event to the input required to accomplish the
event. Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics, and it indicates how well
an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished.
Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold.
Heat transfer (heat) is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
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Stagnation Properties
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Stagnation Properties

Stagnation point

In fluid dynamics, a stagnation point is a point in a flow field where the local velocity of the fluid is
zero.
Stagnation points exist at the surface of objects in the flow field, where the fluid is brought to rest by the
object. The Bernoulli equation shows that the static pressure is highest when the velocity is zero and
hence static pressure is at its maximum value at stagnation points. This static pressure is called
the stagnation pressure.
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Stagnation Properties

Stagnation pressure

In fluid dynamics, stagnation pressure (or pitot pressure) is the static pressure at
a stagnation point in a fluid flow. At a stagnation point the fluid velocity is zero and all
kinetic energy has been converted into pressure energy (isentropically). Stagnation
pressure is equal to the sum of the free-stream dynamic pressure and free-stream static
pressure.
Stagnation pressure is sometimes referred to as pitot pressure because it is measured
using a pitot tube.
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Stagnation Properties

Stagnation enthalpy

Stagnation enthalpy is the enthalpy of a flow at a stagnation point. It is the enthalpy at a

stagnation point if the flow is brought to a stop from velocity v.
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Stagnation Properties

Stagnation temperature

In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, stagnation temperature is the temperature at

a stagnation point in a fluid flow. At a stagnation point the speed of the fluid is zero and
all of the kinetic energy has been converted to internal energy and is added to the
local static enthalpy.
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Stagnation Properties

Recall definition of enthalpy

𝑃 1
ℎ=𝑢+ ,𝑣 = → ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
𝜌 𝜌
𝑃
which is the sum of the internal Energy (u) and flow energy ( )
𝜌
for high-speed flows, Enthalpy and Kinetic energy are combined into Stagnation
enthalpy (ℎ0)
𝑉2
ℎ0 = ℎ +
2
Steady adiabatic flow through duct with no shaft/electrical work and no change in
elevation and potential energy
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 → ℎ1 + 1 = ℎ2 + 2
2 2
Therefore, stagnation enthalpy remains constant during steady-flow process
ℎ0,1 = ℎ0,2
If a fluid was brought to a complete stop (𝑉2 = 0):
𝑉12
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 = ℎ0,2
2
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Stagnation Properties

▪ Therefore, ℎ0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest

adiabatically
▪ During a stagnation process, Kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy.
▪ Properties at this point are called stagnation properties (which are identified
by subscript 0).
▪ if the process is also reversible, the stagnation state is called the isentropic
stagnation state (S = const.).
▪ Stagnation enthalpy is the same for isentropic and actual stagnation states.
▪ Actual stagnation pressure (𝑃0,𝑎𝑐𝑡 ) is lower than (𝑃0 ) due to increase in
entropy (S) as a result of fluid friction.
▪ Nonetheless, stagnation processes are often approximated to be isentropic,
and isentropic properties are referred to as stagnation properties.
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Stagnation Properties

For an ideal gas,

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐶𝑝 𝑇0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + → 𝑇0 = 𝑇 +
2 2𝐶𝑝
Where:

(𝑇0 ) is the stagnation temperature, it represents the temperature of an ideal gas attains when is brought to
rest adiabatically.
𝑉2
( ) corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called the dynamic temperature.
2𝐶𝑝
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Mach number
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Mach number

In fluid dynamics, the Mach number (M or Ma) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past
a boundary to the local speed of sound.

𝑢 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑀= = , 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Where:
M: is the Mach number,
u: is the local flow velocity with respect to the boundaries (either internal, such as an object immersed in the flow, or external, like
a channel), and
c: is the speed of sound in the medium.
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Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Subsonic flow (M<1)

Convergent Nozzle Divergent Diffuser

The proportion between area and velocity is: Reverse proportion

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Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Supersonic flow (M>1)

Convergent Nozzle Divergent Diffuser

The proportion between area and velocity is: Direct proportion

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Gas Turbines
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Introduction

Gas turbines are devices used to generate mechanical power and are more suitable because of the absence
of parts that cause transient movement, making balance problems less and their consumption of
lubricants much less than others.

In steam turbines, steam temperatures cannot be elevated to higher values. This is why gas turbines have
been found. Steam has been eliminated as a working medium in the cycle and replaced with combustion
gases, which can raise temperatures to values much higher than those found in steam turbines.

The concept of gas turbines came from the Carnot circuit, where hot source temperatures should be as
high as possible.

In addition to increasing the pressure at the entrance of the turbine was not possible in the beginning of
the nineteenth century because of the absence of metal that can withstand the high temperature, thermal
stresses and vibration as well as the lack of information on conditions of flow and thermodynamics and
the possibility of raising the pressure significantly.
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History of gas turbines

Gas turbines appeared for the first time in the industrial countries in the late 18th century and the
beginning of the 19th century by a group of scientists and researchers.
Early Gas Turbine History
▪ 1791 First patent for a gas turbine (John Barber, United Kingdom)
▪ 1904 Unsuccessful gas turbine project by Franz Stolze in Berlin (first axial compressor)
▪ 1906 GT by Armengaud Lemale in France (centrifugal compressor, no useful power)
▪ 1910 First GT featuring intermittent combustion (Holzwarth, 150 kW, constant volume combustion)
▪ 1923 First exhaust-gas turbocharger to increase the power of diesel engines
▪ 1939 World’s first gas turbine for power generation (Brown Boveri Company), Neuchâtel,
Switzerland (velox burner, aerodynamics by Stodola)

Actual developments occurred during the Second World War, in which many successes were achieved
and many applications were developed using gas turbines. Power turbines were converted into jet engines
by a number of commercial companies.
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The most important parts of gas turbines

1. Compressor
2. Combustion Chamber
3. Turbine
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A Comparison between the gas turbine and other thermal engines

Gas Turbines & Steam Turbines

Advantages of gas turbine compared with the steam turbine
• No need for feed water because the working medium is the gases and therefore the freedom to choose the place.
• No need for surface condenser or steam generator and therefore less space for construction.
• The number of parts needed for its design is lower.
• The cost of construction, maintenance and investment is lower.
• Operate quickly, very important for aviation, transportation and emergency stations.
• The weight and size are much lower relative to the unit of power.
• Can be founded within a short period of time not exceeding 6 months.
• Operating pressures are much lower.
• It can be connected with steam turbines at a combined cycle.
The disadvantages are:
• Low efficiency when it works at partial load.
• The efficiency is lower than from those in a steam turbine.
The need for special and good types of fuel (such as gas fuel) because of the sensitivity of the blades to the deposits.
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A Comparison between the gas turbine and other thermal engines

Gas Turbines & Internal Combustion Engines

Advantages of gas turbine compared with the Internal Combustion Engines
• The absence of piston and cylinder group which makes it more balanced.
• The mechanical yield is higher due to the absence of slippage and cushions.
• The mechanical efficiency is higher than from those in an Internal Combustion Engine.
• Gas turbine capacity is higher than the Internal Combustion Engine.
• Their weight and their size are much lower.
• Less weight and size.
• Less noise and smoke.
• A flexible system for modifications and additions.
• Higher thermal efficiency when it works at altitudes due to decreasing of external temperature.
The disadvantages are:
• Low efficiency when it works at partial load.
• Sensitive to changes in compressor and turbine efficiency.
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Classification of gas turbines
1- According to the combustion process:
• Continuous combustion under constant pressure (Jules or Brighton cycle).
• Intermittent combustion under constant volume (Ericsson cycle).
2- According to the process of expansion in the turbine:
• The impulse turbine
• The reaction turbine
3- According to the cycle of the working medium:
• An open cycle in which the working medium is taken from the external medium and thrown to it.
• A closed cycle where the working medium remains in the cycle.
• A semi-closed cycle in which a part of the working medium is taken to the outside.
4- According to the direction of flow:
• Axial flow, the direction of the flow of the working medium is parallel to the axis of rotation.
• Radial flow, the direction of the flow of the working medium is vertical to the axis of rotation.
5- According to the number of axles:
• Single axis, the turbine is connected to the compressor with one axis.
• Double or triple axes.
6- According to the temperature of the gases at the turbine entrance:
• Low-temperature turbines (no cooling).
• High-temperature turbines (cooled).
7- According to the number of stages:
• Single stage
• Multi-stages
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The Ideal Brayton Cycle
Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton around 1870. It is used for gas
turbines, which operate on an open cycle, where both the compression and expansion
processes take place in rotating machinery. The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled
as a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard assumptions. The combustion process is
replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from an external source, and the
exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient
air.
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as shown in Figure. Fresh air at ambient
conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised.
The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at
constant pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where
they expand to the atmospheric pressure while producing power. The exhaust gases
leaving the turbine are thrown out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified
as an open cycle. It is made up of four reversible processes.
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The theoretical cycle of a simple gas turbine under the constant pressure,
(P= const.)

The T-S and p-v diagrams of Bryton cycle

• 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

• 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition;
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
• 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection.
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Homework (2)

1- What is the difference between the ideal gas and actual gas?

2- explain with draw the Ideal Brayton Cycle?

3-What are the classification of gas turbines?

4- Compare between the gas turbine and other thermal engines?

5- Number the most important parts of gas turbines?

6- Explain the variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow if the M<1 and if the M > 1?

7- Define Mach number? And classify the type of depending on Mach number?

8- Define the stagnation points with drawing?