298 Thermal Engineering

10
Compressible Fluid Flow

Introduction
When the density of fluid is the function of pressure, then the fluid is called compressible fluid. The
compressible fluid flow involves motion of fluid with Mach number greater than 0.3. It also includes
dynamic, thermal and viscous effects. The fluid dynamics of compressible flows is generally referred as gas
dynamics. The knowledge of gas dynamics is essential in the design of turbo-machines.

The stagnation enthalpy is the total energy of a

Whenever the kinetic and potential energies of a
steadily flowing fluid. It is designated as h0 and ex-
fluid are negligible, the properties of the fluid are
pressed as
referred as static properties. For example, the en-
V2
ergy of a fluid system can be expressed by enthalpy hstagnation = h0 = h + (J/kg) ...(10.2)
as combination of internal energy and flow energy 2
of the fluid as The stagnation enthalpy h0 is made of a static
h = u + pv ...(10.1) V2
part h and a dynamic part . In the absence of
If the kinetic energy of the fluid system becomes 2
negligible then this enthalpy is referred as static
enthalpy.

For high speed fluid flow, the potential energy

of the fluid is negligible but kinetic energy is
significant. In such cases, each property of the fluid
is influenced by kinetic energy, thus it is convenient
to choose a property with kinetic energy in a single
term to form a stagnation property. Hence, a stag-
nation state is defined as a state in a fluid flow field,
when the fluid is brought to rest isentropically.
 Compressible Fluid Flow 299

potential energy change, the steady-flow energy

equation reduces to
For an ideal gas, the enthalpy is a function of tem-
V2 Ê V2 ˆ
q – w = h2 + 2 – Á h1 + 1 ˜ perature only. The stagnation enthalpy can be ex-
2 Ë 2 ¯ pressed as
= h02 – h01 ...(10.3) V2
It represents the total energy of the flowing fluid Cp T0 = Cp T +
2
system and if the fluid velocity is brought to zero
isentropically; (q = 0, w = 0), then V2
or T0 = T + (°C) ...(10.6)
h02 = h01 ...(10.4) 2C p
V12 where T0 is the stagnation or total temperature of
or h1 + = h2 + 0 = h02 ...(10.5)
2 the flowing fluid and it represents the temperature
Thus, the stagnation enthalpy or total enthal- that a fluid attains when it is brought to rest isen-
py represents the enthalpy of the fluid when it is tropically. It should be expressed in °C. The term
brought to rest isentropically. V12
represents temperature rise during such
2C p
isentropic process and thus it is called dynamic
temperature or velocity temperature.

Total pressure or stagnation pressure of a flowing

fluid is the pressure that it attains when the fluid is
brought to rest isentropically. The stagnation pres-
sure exceeds the static pressure by the pressure
equivalent of the velocity. For an ideal gas with
constant specific heat, the stagnation pressure p0 is
related to static pressure p as
g -1
p0 ÊT ˆ g
= Á 0˜ ...(10.7)
p ËT¯

The stagnation density or total desnity of a flowing

fluid at any location is the density corresponding
to stagnation pressure at that location. From the
equation of state for an ideal gas
p
r0 = 0
RT0
For isentropic deceleration process, the stagna-
tion density r0 is related to the actual density r of
the flowing fluid as
1
r0 ÊT ˆg -1
= Á 0˜ ...(10.8)
r ËT¯
300 Thermal Engineering

Example 10.1 Air is flowing isentropically through 1

a nozzle at 27°C and 0.8 bar with a velocity of 120 m/s. 80 Ê 307.16 ˆ 1.4 - 1
= ¥
Calculate the stagnation enthalpy, stagnation tempera- 0.287 ¥ 300 ÁË 300 ˜¯
ture, stagnation pressure and stagnation density of air. = 0.985 kg/m3

Solution Example 10.2 Atmospheric air at 101 kPa and 27°C

is accelerated isentropically in a nozzle from 13.5 m/s
Given The isentropic flow of air through a nozzle with
to 223.8 m/s. Find the changes in (a) temperature,
T = 27°C + 273 = 300 K
(b) pressure, (c) density, (d) stagnation temperature and
p = 0.8 bar = 80 kPa stagnation pressure.
V = 120 m/s
To find Solution
(i) Stagnation enthalpy, Given Isentopic expansion of air through a nozzle
(ii) Stagnation temperature, p1 = 101 kPa T1 = 27°C = 300 K
(iii) Stagnation pressure, and V1 = 13.5 m/s V2 = 223.8 m/s
(iv) Stagnation density.
To find Change in
Assumptions For air: (i) Temperature,
(i) Specific gas constant R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. (ii) Pressure,
(ii) Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1005 (iii) Density, and
J/kg ◊ K. (iv) Stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure.
(iii) Ratio of specific heat g = 1.4.
Assumptions
Analysis (i) Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats,
(i) Stagnation Enthalpy thus
V2 V2 R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
h0 = h + = Cp T +
2 2 Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K,
(120) 2 g = 1.4
= 1005 ¥ 300 + (ii) Changes in potential energy is negligible.
2
= 308.87 ¥ 103 J/kg Analysis
(ii) Stagnation temperature (i) Change in static temperature
V12 Applying steady-flow energy equation between
T0 = T +
2C p two states
(120) 2 V12 V2
= 300 + = 300 + 7.16 h1 + = h2 + 2
2 ¥ 1005 2 2
= 307.16 K V12 V2
or C p T1 + = C p T2 + 2
(iii) Stagnation pressure 2 2
g -1 V12 - V2 2
ÊT ˆ g or T2 = T1 +
p0 = p Á 0 ˜ 2C p
ËT¯
1.4 -1 (13.5) 2 - ( 223.8) 2
Ê 307.16 ˆ 1.4 = 300 +
= 0.8 ¥ Á = 0.868 bar 2 ¥ 1005
Ë 300 ˜¯ = 275.18 K
(iv) Stagnation density Change in temperature,
1 1
DT = T2 – T1 = 275.18 – 300
Ê T ˆ g -1 p Ê T0 ˆ g -1
r0 = r Á 0 ˜ =
RT ÁË T ˜¯
= – 24.82 K (or °C)
ËT¯
 Compressible Fluid Flow 301

(ii) Change in static pressure 1.4

Ê 300.09 ˆ 0.4
For isentropic expansion = 101 ¥ Á
g Ë 300 ˜¯
p2 ÊT ˆg -1 = 101.10 kPa
= Á 2˜
p1 Ë T1 ¯ Stagnation pressure after expansion
1.4 g
Ê 275.18 ˆ 1.4 - 1 Ê T ˆ g -1
= Á = 0.739 = p2 Á 02 ˜
Ë 300 ˜¯
p02
Ë T2 ¯
or p2 = 0.739 ¥ (101 kPa) 1.4
Ê 300.09 ˆ 0.4
= 74.65 kPa = 74.65 ¥ Á
Ë 275.18 ˜¯
Change in pressure
= 101.1 kPa
D p = p2 – p1 = 74.65 – 101
There is no change in stagnation pressure. The
= – 26.5 kPa
stagnation pressure remains constant throghout
(iii) Change in density of air
the nozzle for isentropic flow.
p 101
Initial de nsity, r1 = 1 =
RT1 0.287 ¥ 300
= 1.173 kg/m3
Final density of air,
p2 74.65
r2 = = It is the velocity with which the sound travels
RT2 0.287 ¥ 275.18
through a medium. The velocity at which a small
= 0.945 kg/m3
pressure wave propagates in a fluid is called veloc-
Change in density,
ity of sound or sonic velocity. It is designated as a.
Dr = r2 – r1 = 0.945 – 1.173
Consider a gas at the rest within a constant area
= 0.228 kg/m3
duct as shown in Fig. 10.4. The piston moves to the
(iv) Change in stagnation temperature of air
right with a small and constant incremental velocity
Staganation temperature at the state 1
V12
T01 = T1 +
2C p
(13.5) 2
= 300 + = 300.09 K
2 ¥ 1005
Stagnation temperature after expansion
V22
T02 = T2 +
2
( 223.8) 2
= ( 275.18 K ) +
2 ¥ 1005
= 300.09 K
No change in stagnation temperature. The stagna-
tion temperature remains constant throghout the
nozzle for isentropic flow.
(v) Change in stagnation pressure
Initial stagnation pressure of air,
g
Ê T ˆ g -1
p01 = p1 Á 02 ˜
Ë T1 ¯
302 Thermal Engineering

dV, creating a sonic wave. The wave front travels to Substituting dV in Eq. (10.10),
the right through the gas at the sonic velocity a and dp
r = adr
it separates the moving gas adjacent to the piston ra
from the gas which is still at rest. dp
or a2 = ...(10.12)
Consider a control volume that encloses the dr
wave front and moves with it as shown in Fig. 10.5. The intensity of the sonic wave is very small
The flow pattern can be better studied, when an ob- and does not cause any significant change in the
server moves with the wave front. The stagnation pressure and temperature of the gas. Hence, the
gas to the right, will appear to be moving towards propagation of the wave can be considered as
the wave front with a velocity a and the gas to the isentropic. Then
left will appear to be moving away from the wave Ê ∂p ˆ
front with a velocity a – dV. Thus, the wave can a = Á ˜ ...(10.13)
be considered stationary within the control volume Ë ∂r ¯ s = C
and its flow from right to left. For an isentropic process,
p
= C (a constant)
rg
Differentiating with respect to r, we get
dp Ê ∂p ˆ
= Á ˜
dr Ë ∂r ¯ s = C
gp
= g Cr g -1 = ...(10.14)
r
The continuity equation p
m = r Aa ...(10.9) Using = RT
r
For a steady flow system, it can be expressed as
where R is the gas constant. Combining Eqs (10.13)
m left = m right
and (10.14)), we get
(r + dr) (a – dV ) A = rAa
At the left of the wave front, the gas experiences a = g RT ...(10.15)
an incremental change in its properties, while on In Eq. (10.15), the quantities g and R are con-
the right side of the wave front, the gas maintains stants. Thus the sonic velocity is the function of
its original properties as shown in Fig. 10.5. temperature only. For a given gas, the speed of the
(r + dr) (a – dV ) = ra sound depends only on the square root of the abso-
or ra – rd V + adr – d Vdr = ra lute temperature. Equation (10.15) can be written
Neglecting the higher order term dVdr , we get as
r d V = adr ...(10.10) g RuT
a = ...(10.16)
Further, the rate of change of momentum of gas M
will be equal to applied forces. Hence where M is the molecular weight of the gas and Ru
A[ p – (p + dp)] = m [(a – dV ) – a] is the universal gas constant (= 83144 J/kmol ◊ K).
or A dp = m d V The g is almost constant for all gases, and hence,
Using the continuity equation (10.9), we get speed of sound at a given temperature is inversely
dp = radV proportional to its molecular weight.
dp Some typical values for the speed of sound at
or dV = ...(10.11) 0°C are given in Table 10.1.
ra
 Compressible Fluid Flow 303

If the fluid flows with a Mach

number less than unity (that is, V < a) then the flow
Gas M g a, Speed is called a subsonic flow. Such a flow is character-
Molecular, of sound
ised by smooth streamlines and continuously vary-
weight at 0°C.
(kg/kmol) (m/s) ing properties. Mach number ranges from 0.3 to 1.
Air 28.96 1.404 331 If the Mach number is equal to 1 (that
Argon 39.94 1.667 308 is, V = a) then the flow is regarded as a sonic flow.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 44.01 1.300 258 If fhe flow is with a Mach number around unity (0.8
Freon 12 (CCI2F2) 120.90 1.139 146 < M < 1.2), it is said to be a transonic flow.
Helium (He) 4.00 1.667 970
If the fluid flows with Mach
Hydrogen (H2) 2.01 1.407 1270
number greater than unity (that is, V > a) then the
flow is called a supersonic flow. Such a flow is ob-
served with an oblique shock in the flow field and a
significant change in the properties of the fluid dur-
The Mach number at a point in a flow field is de- ing flow. Mach number ranges from 1 to 5.
fined as the ratio of local fluid velocity to the sonic
or acoustic velocity in the medium. It is a non-di- If the fluid flows with a very
mensional number and it is designated as M and high Mach number (that is, M > 5) then the flow is
expressed as called a hypersonic flow. Such a flow is observed
with a severe shock in the flow field and abrupt
Fluid velocity V
M= = ...(10.17) change in properties of fluid during flow.
Speed of sound a
The definition of Mach number can also be
interpreted as the square root of of the ratio of the
inertia force due to flow to the elastic force of fluid.
When the pressure field is created by a point dis-
Inertia force of flow
M= turbance in a stagnant gas, the pressure pulses gen-
Elastic force of fluid erated from the point of disturbance move in all
The Mach number may be regarded as a measure directions as spherical sound waves with a sonic
of the ratio of kinetic energy of the flowing fluid to velocity in the gas medium.
the kinetic energy of random molecular motion in In order to illustrate the effect of a velocity of
the fluid. body relative to the speed of sound in the flow field,
consider a small object moving at a uniform linear
velocity V in a stationary compressible gas. This
Fluid Flow
small object, as it moves, tends to divert the sta-
The Mach number is a very important parameter in tionary gas. The diverted fluid pushes the surround-
the analysis of compressible fluid flow. The com- ing gas, and this local disturbance creates pressure
pressible regions have been classified according to pulses which propagate further into the surround-
Mach number of flow as ing gas.
Mach number Classification Figures 10.6, 10.7 and 10.8 show the pressure-
pulse pattern for different speeds of the moving ob-
M<1 Subsonic flow
ject in a gas. In each pattern, the point A (at t = 0)
M=1 Sonic flow
represents the present position of the object. The
M>1 Supersonic flow
points B, C, D are respective positions of the object
M>5 Hypersonic flow
before time intervals t, 2t, 3t, respectively.
304 Thermal Engineering

The spherical sound wave originates from the

point source and grows in all directions. The dis-
tance travelled by the object is represented by Vt
in time t. While the distance travelled by the wave
front generated at that time is marked with respec-
tive radii (sonic velocity ¥ time) at, 2at, 3at, re-
spectively, where, at represents the distance trav-
elled by the wave front in time t, 2at in time 2t and
3at in time 3t drawn from locations B, C and D
respectively.

Since the wave front cannot overtake the body,

the fluid ahead of the body does not receive any
information about the body. The region ahead of
the the point source is called a zone of silence and
the sound cannot be heard in this zone. The zone
behind the point source, where sound waves are tra-
versed, is called the zone of action. The two zones
are separated by a line perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the motion of the body.
When the point source travels with supersonic
velocity (M > 1), the wave front circles will not ex-
ist at the point source as shown in Fig. 10.8. The
wave front originating before time interval t, 2t and
When the point source velocity V is less than the 3t are drawn with their originating locations. Since
sonic velocity a, (subsonic M < 1), the sound waves the object is moving with a speed greater than the
are generated and travel in all directions around sonic velocity, the wave front of disturbance creat-
the originating point. Since the sonic velocity a is ed by the body lags behind the body and the wave-
always greater than the velocity of the object V, front cannot overtake the moving body. The zone of
the wavefront generated by the moving object is action takes the form of a cone.
always ahead of the object as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Consequently, if the body moves in a compressible
fluid with a subsonic speed, the fluid ahead of the
body becomes aware of the presence of the body.
For example, all the automobiles travel with sub-
sonic velocities, thus the horn is heard before the
vehicle reaches a person standing on the road.
When the point source travels with sonic veloc-
ity (M = 1), the front of the pressure disturbance
moves the same distance as a small object as shown
in Fig. 10.7. Consequently, all the disturbances are
created by the object at the present position A of the -
object, and all wave fronts are contained in the half
plane to the right of the object.
 Compressible Fluid Flow 305

(ii) Mach number is given by Eq. (10.17);

V 450
When the speed of an object is greater than the M= = = 1.816
a 247.8
speed of sound, the object is always ahead of the (iii) Mach angle is given by Eq. (10.18);
spherical wavefronts generated by the object. The
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
circles of wavefronts are formed along a straight a = sin -1 Á ˜ = sin -1 Á = 33.5°
ËM¯ Ë 1.816 ˜¯
line, known as Mach line. The angle between the
Mach line and the direction of flow is known as the Example 10.4 An air plane travels at a Mach number
Mach angle. All the wavefronts are confined to the of 1.5 at an elevation where the temperature is –37°C.
region within a cone, called the Mach cone. It is Determine the velocity of the plane in kmph. Assume
the zone of action as shown in Fig. 10.8. The at- g = 1.4.
mosphere outside the Mach cone is called the zone Solution
of silence. Hence, the sound of a jet plane is heard
after it passes forward. Given Flight of an air plane
It is observed that for supersonic flow, all the M = 1.5
waves lie within the Mach cone, which has its ver- T = –37°C = 236 K
tex at the point source, A. The semivertex angle of g = 1.4
the Mach cone is the Mach angle, denoted by a and To find Velocity of the air plane in kmph
given as
Assumption
a 1
sin a = = (i) Air as a perfect gas,
V M
(ii) The specific gas constant R = 287 J/kg ◊ K,
-1 Ê 1 ˆ (iii) Steady state operation.
or a = sin Á ˜ ...(10.18)
ËM¯
Analysis The sonic velocity,
Example 10.3 A gas has a molecular weight of 44 a = g RT
and a specific heat ratio of 1.3. Calculate the speed of the
sound in this gas if the temperature is –23°C. If this gas = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 236 = 307.94 m/s
is flowing at a velocity of 450 m/s, calculate the Mach Actual velocity of the plane, using Eq. (10.17)
number and Mach angle. V = Ma
= 1.5 ¥ 307.94 = 461.9 m/s
Solution = 461.9 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 3600
Given = 1662.8 kmph
M = 44 g = 1.3
Example 10.5 A supersonic aircraft is flying at an al-
T = – 23°C = 250 K V = 450 m/s titude of 3 km with a constant flight speed of 2000 km/h.
To find The aircraft passes over a ground observation post. Find
(i) Speed of sound, the time taken to hear the sound waves from the aircraft
at the observation post after it has past directly over it.
(ii) Mach number, and
Assume the average temperature of atmospheric air at
(iii) Mach angle.
the obervation post to be 27°C.
Analysis The specific gas constant for the given gas;
Solution
Ru 8314
R = = = 188.95 J/kg ◊ K
M 44 Given Supersonic aircraft
(i) The speed of sound is given by Eq. (10.15); H = 3 km = 3000 m
V = 2000 km/h
a= g RT = 1.3 ¥ 188.95 ¥ 250 = 247.8 m/s
T1 = 27°C = 300 K
306 Thermal Engineering

To find Time taken by sound waves to reach the ground. To find

Assumptions (i) The initial Mach number.
(ii) Final temperature of air.
(i) The gas constant R = 287 J/kg ◊ K.
(ii) The ratio of specific heats, g = 1.4. Assumptions
Analysis The flight velocity; (i) The gas constant R = 287 J/kg ◊ K.
(ii) The specific heat Cp = 1005 J/kg ◊ K.
2000 ¥ 1000
V = = 555.56 m/s (iii) The ratio of specific heats, g = 1.4.
3600
Velocity of sound in the atmospheric air; Analysis The velocity of sound at the initial state
a = g RT = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 300 a = g RT1 = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 400
= 347.2 m/s = 400.9 m/s
V 555.56 (i) Initial mach number
Flight mach number; M = = = 1.6
a 347.2 V1 100
M1 = = = 0.249
Mach angle is given by Eq. (10.18); a1 400.9
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 ˆ (ii) The final temperature of air
a = sin -1 Á ˜ = sin -1 Á
ËM¯ Ë 1.6 ˜¯ The initial stagnation temperature
= 38.68° V12
T01 = T1 +
From Fig. 10.9, distance 2C p

AB = Vt =
Height BC
=
3000 m (100) 2
= 400 + = 404.97 K
tan a tan (38.68∞) 2 ¥ 1005
= 3747.3 m For isentropic flow; T01 = T02
Distance AB 3747.3 m Sonic velocity of air at exit
Time t = =
V 555.56 m/s
a2 = g RT2
= 6 .75 s
= 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ T2 = 20.04 T2
Exit velocity of air;
V2 = M2 a2 = 2.0 ¥ 20.04 T2
= 40.08 T2
Finalt emperature;
V22
T2 = T02 –
Fig. 10.9 2Cp
( 40.08 T2 ) 2
Example 10.6 The air at 100 m/s initially is acceler- = 404.97 –
2 ¥ 1005
ated isentropically in a nozzle. If the temperature at the
or T2 = 404.97 – 0.8T2
initial state is 400 K and the Mach number at the final
state is 2.0, determine (a) initial Mach number, and (b) fi- 404.97
or T2 = = 224.98 K
nal temperature. 1.8
Example 10.7 Air at 110 kPa, 90°C, with a velocity
Solution of 180 m/s is to be expanded isentropically through a con-
Given Acceleration of air in a nozzle; vergent–divergent nozzle, until its Mach number becomes
1.5. The mass flow rate of air is 0.15 kg/s. Determine the
V1 = 100 m/s, T1 = 400 K
final pressure and cross-sectional area at the nozzle exit.
M2 = 2.0, s l = s2
 Compressible Fluid Flow 307

Solution Using continuity equation,

m = r2 A2 V2
Given Expansion of air in a convergent–divergent
0.15 = 0.465 ¥ A2 ¥ 486.1
nozzle
or A2 = 6.636 ¥ 10– 4 m2 = 6.636 cm2
p1 = 110 kPa T1 = 90°C = 363 K
V1 = 180 m/s s1 = s2 Example 10.8 Static air at 10 bar and 800°C flows
M2 = 1.5 m = 0.15 kg/s through a duct. Calculate the temperature, velocity and
Mach number at points where pressures are 5 bar and
To find
1 bar, respectively. Assume flow to be isentropic and Cp =
(i) Final pressure, and
1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K and g = 1.4 for air.
(ii) Cross-sectional area at the exit.
Assumption Solution
(i) The gas constant R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. Given Isentropic flow through a duct
(ii) The specific heat of air, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K. p1 = 10 bar T1 = 800°C = 1073 K
(iii) g = 1.4. p2 = 5 bar Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K
p3 = 1 bar g = 1.4
Analysis Using steady-flow energy equation in the ab-
sence of potential energy change. V1 = 0

V22 - V12 To find

h1 – h2 =
2 (i) Temperature at two stations,
V22 - V12 (ii) Velocity at two stations, and
or Cp (T1 – T2) =
2 (iii) Mach number at two stations, where pressures are
V22 - 180 2 5 bar and 1 bar, respectively.
1005 ¥ (363 – T2) =
2 Analysis Considering the station where pressure is
5 bar
or V2 = 32400 + 2010 ¥ (363 - T2 ) ...(i)
(i) Static temperature after isentropic flow,
V2 V2
Now using M2 = = g -1
a2 g RT2 Êp ˆ g
T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜
or V2 = 1.5 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 287 T2 = 30.06 T2 Ë p1 ¯
1.4 -1
...(ii)
Ê 5ˆ 1.4
Equating the two equations, we get = 1073 ¥ Á ˜ = 880.22 K
Ë 10 ¯
30.06 T2 = 32400 + 2010 ¥ (363 - T2 )
= 607.22°C
903.6T2 = 32400 + 2010 ¥ (363 – T2)
(ii) For static air, V1 = 0
or 903.6T2 + 2010T2 = 32400 + 729630
Using steady-flow energy equation in the absence
or 2913.6T2 = 762030 of potential energy change (q = w = 0)
or T2 = 261.5 K
V22 - V12
and velocity; V2 = 30.06 ¥ 261.5 = 486.1 m/s 0 = Dh + Dke = h2 – h1 +
g 2
p2 Ê T ˆ g -1 or 2Cp (T1 – T2) = V 22
Using = Á 2˜
p1 Ë T1 ¯ Velocity V2 = 2 ¥ 1005 ¥ (1073 - 880.22)
1.4
Ê 261.5 ˆ 1.4 -1 = 622.5 m/s
or p2 = 110 ¥ Á = 34.9 kPa
Ë 363 ˜¯ (iii) The speed of sound at the station, where
p2 34.9 p2 = 5 bar
Further, r2 = =
RT2 0.287 ¥ 261.5 a2 = g RT2 = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 880.22
= 0.465 kg/m3 = 594.7 m/s
308 Thermal Engineering

V2 622.5 gR
Mach number, M2 = = = 1.046 But Cp = and a2 = g RT
a2 594.7 g -1
Similarly at the station where the pressure is
1 bar, V2 V 2 (g - 1)
\ =
T3 = 55.75 K = 282.75°C, 2C p T 2g RT
V3 = 1019.63 m/s,
M3 = 2.157 V2 g -1 g -1 2
= 2
¥ = M
a 2 2
g -1 2
1+ M1
T2 2
Therefore = ...(10.19)
T1 g -1 2
1+ M2
2
Consider isentropic flow through a duct as shown The relation between pressures and densities are
in Fig. 10.10. For isentropic flow between states 1 g
and 2, the properties are related as È g - 1 2 ˘ g -1
g -1
g -1 p2 Í1 + 2 M1 ˙
T2 Êp ˆ g Êr ˆ = Í ˙ ...(10.20)
= Á 2˜ =Á 2˜ p1 Í1 + g - 1 M 22 ˙
T1 Ë p1 ¯ Ër ¯
1 ÍÎ 2 ˚˙
The steady-flow energy equation applied to is- 1
entropic flow through duct (q = 0, w = 0, D pe = 0), È g - 1 2 ˘ g -1
gives r2 Í1 + 2 M1 ˙
and = Í ˙ ...(10.21)
V2 V2 r1 Í1 + g - 1 M 22 ˙
h1 + 1 = h2 + 2
2 2 ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
V12 V2
or Cp T1 + = C pT2 + 2
2 2 Example 10.9 Air at 28°C and 700 kPa enters a
Ê nozzle with a velocity of 80 m/s. The nozzle has inlet
V ˆ
2 Ê V22 ˆ
or T1 Á1 + 1 ˜ = T2 Á1 + ˜ area of 10 cm2. The air leaves the nozzle of a pressure of
Ë 2C p T1 ¯ Ë 2C p T2 ¯ 250 kPa. Determine
Ê V2 ˆ (a) mass flow rate of air through the nozzle, and
1+ Á 1 ˜ (b) velocity at the exit of nozzle, assuming one-
T2 Ë 2C p T1 ¯ dimensional isentropic flow.
or =
T1 Ê V2 ˆ
1+ Á 2 ˜ Solution
Ë 2C p T2 ¯
Given Air flow through nozzle as shown in Fig. 10.11.
To Find
(i) Mass flow rate of air,
 Compressible Fluid Flow 309

(ii) Velocity of air at nozzle exit. Actual exit velocity of air from the nozzle
V2 = M2 a2 = 1.335 ¥ 300.17
Assumptions
= 400.72 m/s
(i) Air as an ideal gas.
(ii) For air, R = 287 J/kg ◊ K, and g = 1.4.
Analysis
(i) Mass flow rate of air through nozzle
At the section 1, the density of air The equations derived above for isentropic flow
p1 700 ¥ 10 3 through a duct are applicable at stagnation condi-
r1 = = = 8.1 kg/m3 tions. At stagnation state, the Mach number is zero
RT1 287 ¥ 301
The continuity equation gives and properties are denoted by the subscript 0, and
m = r1 A1V1 = 8.1 ¥ (10 ¥ 10 – 4) ¥ 80 the static properties are represented without sub-
= 0.648 kg/s script. Then the stagnation temperature of an ideal
(ii) Exit velocity of air gas is related to static temperature
Sonic velocity at the section 1 T0 Ê g - 1ˆ 2
=1+ Á M ...(10.22)
a1 = g RT T Ë 2 ˜¯
= 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 301 = 347.77 m/s The relation between stagnation pressure p0 and
V1 80 m/s
the static pressure p is
g
Mach number M1 = = = 0.23
a1 347.77 m/s p0 È Ê g - 1ˆ 2 ˘ g -1
= Í1 + Á ˜M ˙ ...(10.23)
For isentropic flow through a duct using p Î Ë 2 ¯ ˚
Eq. (10.21) 1
g r0 È Ê g - 1ˆ 2 ˘ g -1
È g - 1 2 ˘ g -1 and = Í1 + Á ˜M ˙ ...(10.24)
p2 Í1 + 2 M1 ˙ r Î Ë 2 ¯ ˚
= Í ˙
p1 Í1 + g - 1 M 22 ˙ The properties of fluid at a location, where Mach
ÍÎ 2 ˚˙ number becomes unity (throat), are called critical
È 1.4 - 1 2˘
properties and the relations are called critical ratios.
Í1 + 2 ¥ (0.23) ˙ Assuming the superscript (*) represents the critical
or Í ˙
Í 1 + 1.4 - 1 M 22 ˙ values and setting M = 1, the critical equations are
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
1.4 -1
T0 Ê g - 1ˆ g + 1
=1+ Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
= ...(10.25)
Ê 250 ˆ 1.4 T* 2
= Á = 0.74.5
Ë 700 ˜¯ g g
p0 È (g - 1) ˘ g -1 Ê g + 1ˆ g -1
= Í1 + =Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
0.2 M22 ...(10.26)
2 ˙˚
or 1 + = 1.356
p* Î
or M2 = 1.335 1 1
Further, for isentropic flow r0 È (g - 1) ˘ g -1 Ê g + 1ˆ g -1
= Í1 + =Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
...(10.27)
2 ˙˚
g -1 1.4 -1
Êp ˆ g Ê 250 ˆ 1.4 r* Î
T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜ = 301 ¥ Á
Ë p1 ¯ Ë 700 ˜¯
Example 10.10 Air at 500 kPa and 330 K, enters a
= 224.24 K
convergent nozzle with negligible velocity. The nozzle
Sonic velocity at nozzle exit discharges into a receiver, where a pressure of 120 kPa is
a2 = g RT = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 224.24 maintained. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate the ve-
locity at the nozzle exit.
= 300.17 m/s
310 Thermal Engineering

Solution V1 = 150 m/s A = 50 cm2

pb = 0.7 MPa
Given Flow of air in a convergent nozzle
p1 = 500 kPa V1 = 0 m/s To find The mass flow rate through the nozzle.
\ T0 = 330 K pb = 120 MPa Assumptions
To find The velocity at the exit of the nozzle. (i) Isentropic flow,
(ii) Air as ideal gas with specific heat Cp = 1005
Assumptions
J/kg ◊ K and g = 1.4.
(i) Isentropic flow,
(ii) Air as ideal gas with specific heat Cp = 1005 Analysis The stagnation pressure and temperature can
J/kg ◊ K, g = 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. be calculated as
V12 (150 m/s) 2
Analysis Since the inlet velocity of the fluid is negli- T01 = T1 + = 773 K +
gible, thus 2C p 2 ¥ (1005 J / kg ◊ K )
T1 = T01 and p1 = p01 = 784.2 K
g 1.4
For isentropic flow through a nozzle, the velocity
Ê T01 ˆ g -1 Ê 784.2 ˆ 1.4 -1
reaches sonic velocity at the nozzle exit and temperature p01 = p1 Á = (1 MPa ) ¥ ÁË ˜
Ë T ¯˜
1 773 ¯
and pressure become critical.
The critical temperature, = 1.05 MPa
and the critical temperature,
Ê 2 ˆ
T * = T01 Á
Ë g + 1˜¯ Ê 2 ˆ
T * = T01 Á = 784.2 ¥
2
= 653.5 K
˜
Ë g + 1¯ (1.4 + 1)
2
= 330 ¥ = 275 K
(1.4 + 1) The critical pressure ratio at the throat
g 1.4
The critical pressure at the throat p* Ê T * ˆ g -1 Ê 653.5 K ˆ 1.4 -1
g = Á =Á = 0.528
Ê T * ˆ g -1 p01 Ë T01 ˜¯ Ë 784.2 K ˜¯
p* = p01 Á
Ë T01 ˜¯ Since flow through the nozzle is assumed isentropic,
1.4 the stagnation pressure and temperature remain constant.
Ê 275 K ˆ 1.4 -1 The pressure at the throat
= (500 kPa ) ¥ Á
Ë 330 K ˜¯ p* = 0.528 ¥ 1 MPa = 0.528 MPa = 528 bar
= 264 kPa p 0.7 MPa
Back-pressure ratio b = = 0.667
Since the receiver pressure is lower than the critical p01 1.05 MPa
pressure p*, the pressure at the throat of the convergent Since the back pressure ratio is greater than the criti-
nozzle will be p*. The velocity of the flow at the throat cal pressure ratio, the exit pressure will be equal to the
will be sonic velocity; back pressure.
V2 = a = g RT * = 1.4 ¥ ( 287 J/kg ◊ K ) ¥ ( 275 K ) From Table 10.2, at a back pressure ratio of 0.667,
= 332 m/s M* = 0.778, and temperature ratio at the throat
T*/T0 = 0.892
Example 10.11 Air at 1 MPa and 500°C enters a Thus, temperature at the throat,
convergent section with a velocity of 150 m/s. Determine T* = 0.892 ¥ 784.2 = 699.5 K
the mass flow rate through the nozzle, for its throat area Density of air at the throat,
of 50 cm2 and back pressure of 0.7 MPa. p* 700 kPa
r* = =
RT * (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (699.5 K)
Solution = 3.484 kg/m3
Given Flow of air in a convergent nozzle The velocity of air at the throat,
p1 = 1 MPa T1 = 500°C = 773 K V* = M*a = M* g RT *
 Compressible Fluid Flow 311

= (0.778) ¥ 1.4 ¥ ( 287 J/kg ◊ K) ¥ (699.5 K) The critical temperature

= 412.5 m/s Ê 2 ˆ 2
T * = T0 Á = 463 ¥
The mass flow rate at the throat, Ë g + 1¯˜ 1.4 + 1
m* = r* A* V* = 385.8 K
= (3.484 kg/m3) ¥ (50 ¥ 10– 4 m2) The specific volume of air at the throat
¥ (412.5 m/s) RT * 287 ¥ 385.8
v* = =
= 7.185 kg/s p* ( 4.543 ¥ 105 )
Air at 8.6 bar, and 190°C expands at = 0.244 m3/kg
a rate of 4.5 kg/s through a convergent–divergent nozzle The velocity of air at the throat
to an atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar. Assuming that V* = g RT * = 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 385.8
the inlet velocity is negligble, calculate the throat and
exit cross-section areas of the nozzle. = 393.7 m/s
Using continuity equation to find the throat area
Solution m v* 4.5 ¥ 0.244
A* = =
Given Isentropic flow of air through a nozzle with V* 393.7
m = 4.5 kg/s V1 = 0 = 0.002788 m2 = 2788.8 mm2
p0 = 8.6 bar T0 = 190°C = 463 K (ii) For isentropic expansion process, the temperature
p2 = 1.013 bar at the nozzle exit
g -1 1.4 -1
To find T2 Ê p2 ˆ g Ê 1.013 ˆ 1.4
= =Á
(i) The throat area of the nozzle, and T0 ÁË p ˜¯
0 Ë 8.6 ˜¯
(ii) The exit area of the nozzle. = 0.5424
Schematic or T2 = 0.5424 ¥ 463 = 252.14 K
The specific volume at the exit
287 ¥ 251.14
v2 = = 0.711 m3/kg
1.013 ¥ 105
Using steady-flow energy equation
V22
h0 = h2 +
2
or V2 = 2 ( h0 - h2 ) = 2Cp (T0 - T2 )

= 2 ¥ 1005 ¥ ( 463 - 251.14)

Assumptions
= 652.56 m/s
(i) Air as a perfect gas,
The exit area
(ii) The specific gas constant of air as 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K,
(iii) Change in potential energy is negligible. mv2 4.5 ¥ 0.711
A2 = =
V2 652.56
Analysis
= 0.00490 m2 or 4903 mm2
(i) The critical pressure ratio for flow through a
nozzle is given by Example 10.13 A gas which has a molar mass of
g 1.4
p* Ê 2 ˆ g -1 Ê 2 ˆ 1.4 -1 35.9 and the specific heat ratio of 1.60 is discharged from
= Á =Á
p0 Ë g + 1˜¯ Ë 1.4 + 1˜¯ a large chamber in which the pressure is 470 kPa, the
= 0.528 temperature is 27°C and the velocity is effectively zero
through a nozzle. Assuming one-dimensional isentropic
or p* = 0.528 ¥ 8.6 = 4.543 bar
flow, find
312 Thermal Engineering

(a) if the pressure at a certain section in the nozzle Temperature at exit

is 75 kPa, and calculate the Mach number, -1
Ê g - 1 2ˆ
temperature and velocity at this section T = T0 Á1 + M ˜
Ë 2 ¯
(b) if the nozzle has circular cross-section and its -1
diameter is 12 mm at the section discussed in (a) Ê 0.6 ˆ
= (300 K ) ¥ Á1 + ¥ (1.816) 2 ˜
above, and calculate the mass flow rate through Ë 2 ¯
the nozzle. = 150.8 K = –122.2°C
The specific gas constant for air
Solution R 8314
R = u = = 231.58 J/kg ◊ K
Given The steady one-dimensional isentropic flow M 53 .9
through a nozzle with The sonic velocity corresponds to this temperature
M = 35.9 kg/kmol g = 1.60 a = g RT = 1.6 ¥ 231.58 ¥ 150.8
p0 = 470 kPa T0 = 27°C = 300 K = 236.38 m/s
V0 = 0 Hence fluid velocity,
\ M =0 V = a M = 236.38 ¥ 1.816
p = 75 kPa = 429.28 m/s
d = 12 mm = 12 ¥ 10–3 m (ii) Mass flow rate;
p 75 ¥ 103
The density r = =
RT 231.58 ¥ 150.8
= 2.15 kg/m3
Hence
p
m = r AV = 2.15 ¥ ¥ (12 ¥ 10 -3 ) 2 ¥ 429.28
4
= 0.104 kg/s

Fig. 10.13 10.7 ONE -DIMENSIONAL

ISENTROPIC FLOW
To find
(i) Mach number, temperature and velocity, when The flow through the ducts, where the flow cross-
pressure is 75 kPa at some point in the nozzle. sectional area varies gradually is of practical inter-
(ii) When the nozzle has diameter of 12 mm, the est. The nozzles and diffusers are most common ex-
mass flow rate through the nozzle. amples of flow devices in which passage of cross-
Analysis sectional area changes in the flow direction. In
(i) For isentropic flow, we have the relation such devices, the heat transfer may be considered
g negligible. If the frictional effects in such devices
p0 È g - 1 2 ˘ g -1
= Í1 + M ˙ are negligibly small then the flow through such de-
p Î 2 ˚ vices can be treated as one-dimensional isentropic
It follows the Mach number flow with good accuracy. In addition, when a fluid
flows through a varying cross-section area duct, the
È g -1 ˘
2 ÍÊ p0 ˆ g ˙ pressure, temperature, and velocity of fluid vary
M = Í - 1˙
g - 1 ÍÁË p ˜¯ ˙
contiuously. These variations are analyzed in this
Î ˚ section.

È 1.6 - 1 ˘
2 ÍÊ 470 ˆ 1.6 ˙
Hence, M = ¥ ÍÁ - 1˙ = 1.816
0.6 Ë 75 ˜¯ Consider a control volume of a varying cross-
Í ˙
Î ˚ sectional area duct in which the fluid flows steadily
 Compressible Fluid Flow 313

Substituting the definition of velocity of sound

in an isentropic flow, Eq. (10.12), we get
dA dp Ê 1 1ˆ
= Á - 2˜
A r VË 2
a ¯
dp Ê V2 ˆ
= 2 Á
1- 2 ˜
rV Ë a ¯
Using the definition of Mach number,
Eq. (10.17),
dA dp
= 2 (1 – M 2) ...(10.33)
and isentropically. A V r
The continuity equation for a steady one-dimen- Further, using Eq. (10.31) for the value of dp/r
sional flow process: in Eq. (10.33), we get
m = rAV = constant
dA dV
Differentiating and dividing the resultant equa- or =– (1 – M 2) ...(10.34)
tion by continuity equation, we get, A V
2
Further, using dp = a dr in Eq. (10.33), to get
dr dA d V
+ + =0 ...(10.28) area variation in terms of density change
r A V
The steady flow energy equation with negligible dA a 2 dr
= (1 - M 2 )
potential energy change ( w = 0, q = 0, Dpe = 0 can A r V2
be expressed as
dr Ê 1 - M 2 ˆ
V2 V2 = ...(10.35)
h1 + 1 = h2 + 2 r ÁË M 2 ˜¯
2 2
In differential form, Equations (10.33), (10.34) and (10.35) are im-
dh + Vd V = 0 ...(10.29) portant relations for isentropic flow through a duct,
Using Tds relation, since these equations describe the variation of pres-
Tds = dh – v dp sure, velocity and density with change of duct area.
For isentropic flow (Tds = 0),
dp
dh = v dp = ...(10.30)
r A nozzle is a device, used to increase the velocity of
Substituting dh in Eq. (10.29), we get
fluid passing through it at the expense of pressure
dp dV
VdV + =0 ...(10.31) drop. Hence for a nozzle, the quantity must be
r V
dp
This relation is the differential form of positive and the quantity must be negative in
Bernoulli’s equation. p
the direction of flow.
Substituting dV from Eq. (10.31) into
For subsonic flow, M < 1, M 2 <
Eq. (10.28), we get
1; dV > 0 fi dA < 0, the term (1 – M2) is always
dr dA dp positive. It indicates that when a duct converges
+ - 2 =0
r A V r in the direction of flow, i.e., flow area decreases
(dA < 0), the fluid pressure decreases, Eq. (10.33),
dA dp Ê 1 dr ˆ
or = Á - ...(10.32) while fluid velocity increases, Eq. (10.34) as shown
A r ËV 2 dp ˜¯
in Fig. 10.15(a).
314 Thermal Engineering

a diffuser, d V must be negative and dp must be

positive.
For subsonic flow, M < 1, M 2 <
1; d V < 0 fi dA > 0: the term (1 – M2) is positive.
It indicates that when duct diverges in the direction
of flow, i.e., flow area increases (dA > 0), the fluid
pressure increases, Eq. (10.33), and fluid velocity
decreases, Eq. (10.34), as shown in Fig. 10.17(b).

For supersonic flow, M > 1, M 2

> 1, d V > 0 fi dA > 0. The term (1 – M 2) is always
negative. It indicates that when the duct diverges
in the direction of flow, i.e., flow area increases
(dA > 0), the fluid pressure decreases, Eq. (10.33),
while fluid velocity increases Eq. (10.34) as shown
in Fig. 10.15(b). Hence to obtain nozzle action in
supersonic stream, the passage must be diverging.
Whenever highest velocity is desired, then a
converging nozzle is used at subsonic velocities For supersonic flow, M >
and a diverging nozzle is used at supersonic ve- 1, M 2 > 1; d V < 0 fi dA < 0: the term (1 – M 2)
locities. Hence, the nozzles are constructed with is negative. It indicates that when duct converges
three parts, converging duct, throat and diverging in the direction of flow, i.e., flow area decreases
duct as shown in Fig. 10.16. In the converging duct, (dA < 0), the fluid pressure increases, Eq. (10.33),
the velocity of fluid increases up to sonic velocity while fluid velocity decreases, Eq. (10.34) as shown
(highest attainable in convergent portion) and then in Fig. 10.17(b).
fluid flows in the diverging section via the throat, to
Whenever a compressible fluid is desired to
further accelerate the velocity.
decelerate from supersonic speed to subsonic
speed, the fluid must pass a converging–diverging
duct of shape as shown in Fig. 10.18. To get the
diffuser action in the duct, the fluid flow at the
throat must be sonic.

A diffuser is a device, used to increase the pressure

of the fluid at the expense of velocity drop. For

The back pressure is the pressure in the exhaust re-
gion outside the nozzle. The case of a converging
nozzles is taken up first and then converging–di-
verging nozzle is considered.
Consider a convergent nozzle is attached to a large
reservoir as shown in Fig. 10.19. Since the gas ve-
locity at the inlet to nozzle will be relatively small
and flow through the nozzle is isentropic, hence the
stagnation pressure and the stagnation temperature
at any section of the nozzle will be equal to gas
pressure and temperature in the reservoir, and thus,
may be designated as p0 and T0, respectively. The
pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is pe and the
back pressure is pb.
1. When the back pressure pb = p0, there is no
mass flow m = 0 through the nozzle. This
corresponds to the case 1 of Fig. 10.19.
2. If the back pressure pb is reduced to p2 as in
the case 2, it causes the pressure to decrease
in flow direction which results in a certain
Compressible Fluid Flow 315
mass flow rate of gases through the nozzle.
3. Further, decrease in back pressure results
in greater mass flow rate. In this case, the
velocity is subsonic through the nozzle and
the exit pressure pe equals the back pressure
pb. The Mach number increases as pb
decreases.
4. If the back pressure pb is further reduced to
p3 = p*, the mass flow rate reaches its maxi-
mum possible value. This case is represented
by 3 on Fig. 10.19. The Mach number reach-
es unity and it cannot be increased further in
conversing section. p* is the pressure corre-
sponding to sonic velocity, thus called criti-
cal pressure.
5. If the back pressure is further reduced to a
value p4 less than p* as in the case 4, the
velocity at the nozzle exit remains sonic
velocity. Neither the mass flow rate nor
pressure variation in the nozzle is affected
and the nozzle is said to be chocked. For a
chocked nozzle, the mass-flow rate reaches
the maximum possible value for given stag-
nation conditions.
6. For pb less than p* the flow expands outside
the nozzle to match the lower back pressure.
316 Thermal Engineering

2. When the back pressure pb is just slightly

below inlet pressure p0 ( pB in the case B),
the fluid velocity increases in the converg-
The highest velocity to which a fluid can be sub-
ing section and reaches maximum at the
jected in a convergent nozzle is limited to sonic
throat (M < 1), but decreases in the diverg-
velocity (M = 1), which occurs at the exit plane of
ing section. There is a decrease in the pres-
the nozzle. However, the fluid flow can be accel-
sure in converging section, which becomes
erated from subsonic to supersonic by attaching a
minimum at the throat and increases in the
diverging duct to the subsonic nozzle at the throat.
diverging section at the expense of the veloc-
For given inlet conditions, the flow through a con-
ity. The flow becomes subsonic throughout
vergent–divergent nozzle is governed by the back
the nozzle.
pressure as explained below:
3. As the back pressure pb is further reduced
Consider an isentropic fluid flow from an infinite
( pC in the case C ), the pressure at the throat
reservoir, through a convergent–divergent nozzle to
becomes the critical pressure p*, the fluid
an exhaust chamber as shown in Fig. 10.20. Since
velocity becomes sonic at the throat. The
the inlet velocity V to the nozzle is very small,
fluid mass flow reaches maximum and the
hence, the conditions at the inlet to the nozzle are at
flow is said to be choked. But the diverging
the stagnation state. Let the inlet conditions be p0,
section acts as diffuser and hence, the fluid
T0, and r0. The nozzle exit pressure be pe, while pb
velocity decreases and pressure increases in
is the back pressure (pressure in the chamber).
this section as shown by the curve C.
1. When the back pressure pb is equal to p0 (pA 4. When the back pressure pb is further reduced
in the case A) then the pressure in the nozzle ( pD in the case D), the fluid flow rate at the
will be uniform throughout and there will no throat remains constant. The fluid velocity
fluid flow through the nozzle. continues to increase and accelerate in the
 Compressible Fluid Flow 317

diverging section of the nozzle and its ve- 2g R

locity becomes supersonic as shown by the V = (T0 - T )
g -1
curve D.
However, at a section in downstream, a 2g RT0 Ê Tˆ
discontinuity occurs in the flow and abrupt
or V =
g -1 ÁË 1 - T ˜¯ ...(10.36)
0
increase in pressure is noticed and fluid flow
For isentropic process, using
decelerates from supersonic to subsonic. g -1
This discontinuity in the flow is called nor- T Ê pˆ g
mal shock. The flow through the shock is = Á ˜
T0 Ë p0 ¯
steady, irreversible and adiabatic.
5. If the back pressure pb is further reduced to Ï g -1 ¸
pE, the shock shifts towards downstream, ap- 2g RT0 Ô Ê pˆ g Ô
then V= Ì1 - Á ˜ ˝ ...(10.37)
proaching the nozzle exit as shown by the g -1 Ô Ë p0 ¯ Ô
curve E. Ó ˛
6. When the back pressure pb is at the value The mass flow rate
represented by the point F, the normal shock m = r AV
stands in the exit plane of the nozzle. The g -1 ¸
Ï
flow through the duct is isentropic; subson- 2g RT0 Ô Ê pˆ g Ô
ic in convergent nozzle, sonic at the throat or m = rA Ì1 - Á ˜ ˝ ...(10.38)
g -1 Ô Ë p0 ¯ Ô
and supersonic in the diverging portion. Ó ˛
However, the fluid passes through the shock p
Using r =
as it leaves the nozzle and hence, jet leaving RT g -1
the nozzle becomes subsonic.
Ê pˆ g
7. When the back pressure pb is slightly below and T = T0 Á ˜
Ë p0 ¯
pF, the fluid expands isentropically up to the
g -1 1
nozzle exit plane and no shock forms within p Ê p0 ˆ g p Ê p ˆg
Thus r = = 0 Á ˜
or outside the nozzle and one-dimensional RT0 ÁË p ˜¯ RT0 Ë p0 ¯
supersonic jet leaves the nozzle.
Substituting in to Eq. (10.38)
For any further reduction in back pressure
pb, the flow within and outside, the nozzle Ï 2 g +1 ¸
remains the same. Ap0 2g RT0 ÔÊ p ˆ g Ê p ˆ g Ô
m = Ì -Á ˜ ˝
RT0 g -1 ÔÓÁË p0 ˜¯ Ë p0 ¯ Ô˛

Ï 2 g +1 ¸
Ap0 2g ÔÌÊ p ˆ g Ê p ˆ g Ô˝
or m = -Á ˜
Since the fluid flow through the nozzle is isentropic, RT0 g - 1 ÔÓÁË p0 ˜¯ Ë p0 ¯ Ô˛
therefore, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant.
...(10.39)
The velocity at any cross section in the nozzle; 1/ 2
Ï 2 g +1 ¸
2( h0 - h) Ê p ˆg Ê p ˆ g Ô
m = C ÔÌÁ ˜ - Á
V=
or ˝ ...(10.40)
Using h = Cp T; V = 2C p (T0 - T ) ÔË p0 ¯ Ë p0 ˜¯ Ô
Ó ˛
gR
Using Cp = where C is constant and an equivalent of constant
g -1
quantities g, R, T0, p0 and A in the above equation.
318 Thermal Engineering

For maximum discharge rate, differentiating the AMp0

above equation with respect to throat pressure p and m =
g
equating it to zero; Ê g - 1 2 ˆ g -1
ÁË1 + 2 M ˜¯
dm
=0 1
dp g
g È g - 1 2˘2
p* Ê 2 ˆ g -1 ¥ ¥ 1+ M ˙
we get, = Á ...(10.41) RT0 ÍÎ 2 ˚
p0 Ë g + 1˜¯
The properties of a fluid at throat (M = 1) are AMp0 g
or m = g +1
...(10.46)
called the critical properties and denoted by the RT0
Ê g -1 2 ˆ 2 (g -1)
subscript asterisk (*). The pressure p* corresponds ÁË1 + 2 M ˜¯
to maximum discharge, thus it is called critical
pressure. For all back pressures lower than p*, the For choked flow, M = 1 and A = A*, and the
pressure of the exit plane of the convergent nozzle flowing fluid is air (g = 1.4), the maximum flow
is equal to p*. rate through the nozzle is obtained as
The velocity at the throat can be obtained by 0.6847 p0 A*
mmax = ...(10.47)
substituting the above Eq. (10.41) in Eq. (10.37) as RT0
2g RT0 ÏÔ Ê 2 ˆ ¸Ô Thus, for any ideal gas, mmax through the nozzle
V* = Ì1 - Á ˜ ˝ ...(10.42) is controlled by p0 and T0, hence, a convergent
g -1 ÓÔ Ë g + 1¯ Ô˛ nozzle can be used as a flowmeter.
2 g RT0
or V* = ...(10.43) Example 10.14 Helium gas at 6.9 bar and 93°C
g +1 enters a convergent nozzle with negligible velocity and
expands isentropically to a pressure of 3.6 bar. Calculate
or V* = g RT * = a* ...(10.44)
the mass flow rate per square metre of the exit area.
2 Take Cp for helium gas as 5.19 kJ/kg ◊ K and molar
Where T* = T0 ...(10.45)
g +1 mass as 4 kg/kmol.
The temperature T* is the critical temperature at
the throat. The fluid has sonic velocity at the throat
when the mass flow rate is maximum.
The convergent–divergent nozzle has minimum
area at the throat, thus the fluid mass flow rate is
maximum at the throat. Under steady flow condi-
tion, the mass flow rate through the nozzle is con-
stant and can be expressed as
p
m = r AV = A ( M g RT )
RT Solution
g
= AMp Given Isentropic flow of helium gas through a conver-
RT
gent nozzle
Using terms of T0 and p0 from Eqs. (10.22) and p1 = 6.9 bar T1 = 93°C = 366 K
(10.23), the above equation can be expressed as p2 = 3.6 bar V1 = 0
C p = 5.19 kJ/kg ◊ K M = 4 kg/kmol
 Compressible Fluid Flow 319

To find The mass flow rate of helium per square metre ture, exit Mach number and exit velocity for the following
of the nozzle exit area. conditions:
Assumptions (a) Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section
acting as a nozzle,
(i) Helium as a perfect gas.
(b) Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section
(ii) Change in potential energy is zero.
acting as a diffuser.
Analysis The specific gas constant for helium
Solution
Ru 8314
R = = = 2078.5 J/kg ◊ K.
M 4 Given A convergent–divergent nozzle
gR p0 = 1 MPa T0 = 360 K
and Cp =
g -1 A/A* = 2 A* = 500 mm2
g -1 R 2078.5
or = = = 0.4 To find
g C p 5.19 ¥ 103 (i) Mass flow rate,
1 (ii) Exit temperature,
Thus g = = 1.667
1 - 0.4 (iii) Exit pressure,
The critical pressure ratio for helium gas flow through (iv) Exit Mach number, and
the nozzle (v) Exit velocity.
g 1.667
p* Ê 2 ˆ g -1 Ê 2 ˆ 1.667 -1 = 0.487 Assumptions
= Á =Á
p1 Ë g + 1˜¯ Ë 1.667 + 1˜¯ (i) Isentropic flow, and
or p* = 0.487 ¥ 6.9 = 3.360 bar (ii) Air as ideal gas with Cp = 1005 J/kg ◊ K, g = 1.4
which is less than the exit pressure and hence the fluid and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
does not reach the critical conditions and the nozzle is Analysis
not chocked.
(i) For A/A* = 2, we get two Mach numbers, greater
Temperature T2 at the nozzle exit than unity and less than unity. When diverging
g -1 1.667 - 1
section acts as supersonic nozzle, then M > 1.
Êp ˆ g Ê 3.6 ˆ 1.667
T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜ = 366 ¥ Á From Table A-10;
Ë p1 ¯ Ë 6.9 ˜¯
A pe
= 282.14 K = 2 Me = 2.197 = 0.0938
A* p0
The velocity at the exit of the nozzle Te
= 0.5089
V2 = 2 Cp (T1 - T2 ) T0
Therefore, pe = 0.0938 ¥ (1 MPa) = 0.0938 MPa,
= 2 ¥ 5.19 ¥ 103 ¥ (366 - 282.14) Te = 0.5089 ¥ (360 K) = 183.2 K
= 933 m/s
ae = g RTe
The specific volume at the nozzle exit
= 1.4 ¥ ( 287 J/kg ◊ K ) ¥ (183.2 K )
RT2 2.0785 ¥ 282.14
v2 = = = 1.63 m3/kg = 271.3 m/s
p2 3.6 ¥ 10 2
Ve = Me ae = 2.197 ¥ (271.3 m/s)
The mass flow rate of helium for 1 m2 exit area
= 596.1 m/s
AV2 1 ¥ 933
m = = = 572.75 kg/s The mass flow rate is determined at throat
v2 1.63
condition. Here, the velocity at the throat is sonic
velocity (M = 1). Thus, the density of air at the
Example 10.15 A convergent–divergent nozzle has
throat,
an exit area to throat area ratio of 2. Air enters this noz-
zle with a stagnation pressure of 1 MPa and a stagna- pe (0.0938 ¥ 1000 kPa )
re = =
tion temperature of 360 K. The throat area is 500 mm². RTe (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K ) ¥ (183.2 K )
Determine the mass flow rate, exit pressure, exit tempera- = 1.784 kg/m3
320 Thermal Engineering

The mass flow rate at the throat, (700 kPa )

m = r e A e Ve m =
(0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K ) ¥ (301 K )
= (1.784 kg/m3) ¥ (500 ¥ 10– 6 m2)
¥ (10 ¥ 10–4 m2) ¥ (80 m/s)
¥ (271.3 m/s)
= 0.648 kg/s
= 0.242 kg/s
(ii) The sonic velocity at the inlet can be calculated as
(ii) When the diverging section acts as a diffuser
nozzle then M < 1. From Table A-10; ai = g RTi = 1.4 ¥ ( 287 J/kg ◊ K) ¥ (301 K)
A = 347.7 m/s
= 2, Me = 0.308,
A* The inlet Mach number is
pe Te Vi 80 m/s
= 0.936, = 0.9812 Mi = = = 0.23
p0 T0 ai 347.7 m/s
Therefore, pe = 0.308 ¥ (1 MPa) = 0.308 MPa, For isentropic expansion through the nozzle
Te = 0.9812 ¥ (360 K) = 353.3 K g
È g - 1 2 ˘g -1
ae = g RTe = 1.4 ¥ ( 287 J/kg ◊ K) ¥ (353.3 K) pe Í1 + 2 M i ˙
= Í ˙
= 376.8 m/s pi Í1 + g - 1 M e2 ˙
Ve = Me ae = 0.308 ¥ (376.8 m/s) = 116 m/s ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
The mass flow rate remains the same, since
M = 1.
1.4
Example 10.16 Air flows through a nozzle which È 1.4 - 1 2 ˘ 1.4 -1
250 Í1 + 2 (0.23) ˙
has an inlet area of 10 cm2. If air has a velocity of or = Í ˙
80 m/s, a temperature of 28°C, and a pressure of 700 kPa 700 Í 1 + 1.4 - 1 M e2 ˙
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
at the inlet section and a pressure of 250 kPa at the exit,
find the mass flow rate through the nozzle and the velocity or Me = 1.335
at the exit, when flow conditions are isentropic. The exit temperature
g -1
Solution Êp ˆ g
Te = Ti Á e ˜
Ë pi ¯
Given 1.4 -1
pi = 700 kPa Ti = 28°C = 301 K Ê 250 ˆ 1.4
Te = 301 ¥ Á = 224.3 K
Vi = 80 m/s Ai = 10 cm2 Ë 700 ¯˜
pe = 250 kPa si = se The exit velocity,
To find Ve = Me ¥ ae = Me g RTe
(i) The mass flow rate, and = 1.335 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 287 ¥ 224.3
(ii) The exit velocity. = 400.8 m/s
Assumptions
(i) Isentropic flow
(ii) Air as an ideal gas with Cp = 1005 J/kg ◊ K, g = 1.4
and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. The shock wave is an extremely thin region in the
Analysis flow field, in which transition from supersonic ve-
(i) The mass flow rate is given by
locity to relatively low velocity occurs. The normal
p waves exist due to abrupt changes in fluid prop-
m = ri Ai Vi = i ¥ Ai ¥ Vi
RTi erties. A shock wave may be viewed similar to a
hydraulic jump which occurs in free surface liq-

uid flows. The shock waves are generally curved.
However, many shock waves that occur in practical
are straight, being at right angles to flow direction
(normal shock wave), at an angle to upstream flow
(oblique shock wave).
Figure 10.22 shows a control surface that
includes normal shock. The changes in fluid
properties across a normal shock are illustrated in
Fig. 10.22. The fluid velocity decreases, while the
pressure, temperature, density, etc., increase after
normal shock occurs.
The fluid is assumed in thermal equilibrium be-
fore and after the shock wave. The property chang-
es across a normal shock can be obtained from
continuity equation rV = G (a constant) and the
momentum equation p + rV 2 = F (a constant).
Assuming steady flow with no work and heat in-
teractions and no potential energy changes, let the
subscripts x and y denote the conditions upstream
(inlet) and downstream (exit) of shock, respectively
as shown in Fig. 10.22.
The steady-state energy equation;
Vx2 V2
hx + = hy + y
2 2
h0x = h0y ...(10.48)
The continuity equation for constant area duct;
m
= rxVx = ry Vy ...(10.49)
A
Compressible Fluid Flow 321
The momentum equation;
A( px – py) = m (Vx – Vy) ...(10.50)
The second law of thermodynamics;
sy – sx ≥ 0 ...(10.51)
If we combine energy and continuity equation
into a single equation and plot it on an h–s dia-
gram using property relations, the resultant curve
is called Fanno line. The momentum and continu-
ity equations in combination give Rayleigh line.
Both these lines are shown in Fig. 10.23 on an h–s
diagram, simultaneously. The points a and b cor-
respond to maximum entropy for M = 1. The lower
part of each curve corresponds to supersonic ve-
locities, and the upper part corresponds to subsonic
velocities.
The two points, where all three equations are
satisfied are the points x and y, the point x being in
a supersonic region and the point y in subsonic re-
gion. For any adiabatic process, sy – sx ≥ 0 accord-
ing to the second law of thermodynamics. Hence,
the normal shock can proceed from x to y. The su-
personic velocity of flow becomes subsonic after
normal shock.
Since the stagnation enthalpy remains constant
across the shock, thus for an ideal gas
T0x = T0y ...(10.52)
That is, the stagnation temperature of an ideal
gas also remains constant across a normal shock.
322 Thermal Engineering

The momentum and continuity equations can be

combined to give an equation of Rayleigh line.
The actual flow process inside the shock wave is
m
non-isentropic, but the flow process ahead of and px – py = (Vx – Vy )
after the shock can be considered isentropic. Using A
Eq. (10.22) across the shock = ry Vy2 – rx Vx2
T0 x (g - 1) 2 or px + rx Vx2 = py + ry Vy2
=1+ Mx p py 2
Tx 2 or px + x Vx2 = py + Vy
T0 y (g - 1) 2 RTx RTy
and =1+ My Using a2 = g RT
Ty 2
We get px (1 + g Mx2) = py (1 + g My2)
Dividing the first equation by the second equa-
tion; py 1 + g M x2
(g - 1) 2 or = ...(10.56)
1+ Mx px 1 + g M y2
Ty 2
= ...(10.53) It is the equation of Rayleigh line.
Tx (g - 1) 2
1+ My The Eqs. (10.55) and (10.56) in combination
2
For an ideal gas, give
2
p py M x2 +
rx = x and ry = g -1
RTx RTy My2 = ....(10.57)
2g
Substituting it into the continuity equation, M x2 - 1
g -1
r x Vx = ry Vy
It represents the intersection of Fanno and
px Vx p y Vy Rayleigh lines and relates the Mach number up-
=
RTx RTy stream of the shock to downstream of the shock.
Rearranging the above equation and using These shocks occur in hypersonic nozzles as
M = V/a and a = g RT well as ahead of the supersonic air craft or bullets
as shown in Fig. 10.24. If we consider a station-
Ty p y Vy p y My ay
= = ary aircraft and movement of air with supersonic
Tx px Vx px Mx ax velocity towards the aircraft, the air follows the
stagnation process and it stops when it reaches the
p y M y g RTy p y M y Ty
= = nose of the aircraft. The normal shock occurs where
px Mx g RTx px Mx Tx velocity of air suddenly decelerates to subsonic. It
2 creates a sonic boom.
Ê py ˆ Ê Mx ˆ
2
Ty
Therefore, Á ˜ = ¥ ...(10.54) The entropy change across the shock can be
Ë px ¯ ÁË M y ˜¯ Tx calculated as
Combining Eqs. (10.53) and (10.54), i.e., T p
sy – sx = Cp ln y – R ln y ...(10.58)
combining energy and continuity equation, gives Tx px
pressure ratio across the shock;
Shock Shock
wave wave
g 1 Bullet
py Mx 1 + M x2
2
= ...(10.55)
px g 1
My 1+ M y2
2
It is also called the equation of Fanno line.

The flow through the nozzles and diffusers are not
reversible adiabatic (isentropic) but irreversible
adiabatic. Thus, three important parameters are
used by which the actual flow can be compared
with isentropic flow. These are nozzle efficiency,
velocity coefficient and discharge coefficient.
The nozzle efficiency (hN) can be expressed as
Actual kinetic energy at nozzle exit
hN =
Kinetic energy at nozzle exit foor
isentropic flow to the same exist pressure
V22
= ...(10.59)
V22s
The nozzle efficiency can also be defined in
terms of actual enthalpy drop and isentropic en-
thalpy drop. It can be expressed as
h - h2
hN = 01 ...(10.60)
h01 - h2s
where h01 is stagnation enthalpy of the fluid at the
nozzle inlet and h2 is the enthalpy of fluid at the
exit for actual nozzle, while h2s is the exit enthalpy
for a nozzle under isentropic conditions. The noz-
zle efficiency varies from 90% to 99%. The larger
nozzle has more efficiency than smaller nozzle.
Figure 10.25 shows the effect of irreversibility.
The nozzle velocity coefficient (CV) is also an
important parameter and can be expressed as
Actual velocity at the nozzle exit
CV =
Velocity at the nozzle exit with isentropic
flow and same exit pressure
h
01
2 2
½Ve ½V2s
2
2s
s
Compressible Fluid Flow 323
V2
= ...(10.61)
V2s
It follows that the velocity coefficient is equal to
the square root of the nozzle efficiency;
CV = h N ...(10.62)
The mass flow rate through the nozzle is the
design consideration, because it is affected by
irreversibilities. An important parameter, coefficient
of discharge (CD) relates the actual mass flow with
mass flow under the isentropic conditions for the
same nozzle.
Actual mass flow rate
CD =
Mass flow rate with isentropic flow
m
= ...(10.63)
ms
Diffusers are designed to increase the pressure
of a fluid by decelerating it. The diffuser efficiency
hD is based on its ability to convert the kinetic
energy of the fluid into a useful pressure rise.
Actual kinetic energy available
for pressure rise
hD =
Maximum kineetic energy available
Refer Fig. 10.26, the h–s diagram states 1 and 01
are actual and stagnation states at the diffuser inlet,
states 2 and 02 are actual and stagnation states at
the diffuser exit. The state 02s is a fictitious diffuser
exit state, which would be attained for isentropic
process in diffuser. The states 2 and 02 become
identical for zero exit velocity of diffuser.
324 Thermal Engineering

The maximum kinetic energy at the diffuser inlet To Find

V12 (i) Ratio of exit area to inlet area.
= h01 – h1 (ii) Pressure rise coefficient.
2
Actual enthalpy drop, which can be converted to Assumptions
pressure rise (i) The fluid is an ideal gas.
D hs = h02s – h1 (ii) The specific heat Cp = 1005 J/kg ◊ K.
Then the diffuser efficiency can be expressed as (iii) Adiabatic diffuser.
h -h Analysis For adiabatic diffuser
hD = 02s 1 ...(10.63)
h01 - h1 T01 = T02
The diffuser efficiency varies from 90 to The stagnation temperature at the diffuser inlet
100 per cent for subsonic diffusers and it deceases V12
T01 = T1 +
with increasing Mach numbers. 2C p
Another parameter to measure the diffuser abil- (150) 2
= 300 K + = 311.2 K
ity to increase the pressure of the fluid is the pres- 2 ¥ 1005
sure recovery factor, FP, which is defined as the ra- V22 V2
tio of actual stagnation pressure at the diffuser exit and T2 = T02 – = T01 – 2
2Cp 2Cp
to isentropic stagnation pressure.
60 2
p = 311.2 – = 309.4 K
FP = 02 ...(10.64) 2 ¥ 1005
p01 Then the stagnation pressure at the diffuser inlet
A third parameter to evaluate diffuser’s perfor- g 1.4
mance is the pressure-rise coefficient CPR . It is de- Ê T ˆ g -1 Ê 311.2 ˆ 0.4
p01 = p1 Á 01 ˜ = (100 kPa ) ¥ Á
fined as the ratio of actual pressure rise in the diffus- Ë T1 ¯ Ë 300 ˜¯
er to that corresponding to isentropic process. Thus, = 113.68 kPa
Actual pressure rise For air as an ideal gas, the diffuser efficiency can be
CPR = expressed as
Isentropic pressure rise
h - h T -T
p - p1 hD = 02 s 1 = 02s 1
= 2 ...(10.65) h01 - h1 T01 - T1
p01 - p1
The pressure rise coefficient depends on flow
characteristics and shape of the diffuser and its
value is usually less than 0.8.

Example 10.17 A certain diffuser having an efficien-

cy of 90% is used to reduce the velocity of an air stream
initially at 150 m/s, 300 K, and 100 kPa down to 60 m/s.
Calculate the ratio of exit area to inlet area to accom-
plish this reduction. What is the value of pressure rise
coefficient for this diffuser?

Solution
Given A diffuser with
hD = 0.9 V1 = 150 m/s
T1 = 300 K, p1 = 100 kPa
V2 = 60 m/s
 Compressible Fluid Flow 325

T02 s - 300 divergent portion. The fluid friction is also small

or 0.9 = fi T02s = 310.08 K
311.2 - 300 in the convergent portion than in the divergent por-
1.4
ÊT ˆ Ê 310.08 ˆ 0.4 tion, since the fluid velocity in the convergent por-
and p02s = p1 Á 02 s ˜ = (100 kPa) ¥ Á
Ë T ¯
1 Ë 300 ˜¯ tion is also small. Thus, most of the friction occurs
= 112.26 kPa in the divergent portion of the nozzle and the h–s
Refering Fig. 10.27, p02s = p02, then diagram takes the shape as shown in Fig. 10.28.
g 1.4 The nozzle efficiency for such a nozzle is given as
Ê T ˆ g -1 Ê 309.4 ˆ 0.4
p2 = p02 Á 2 ˜ = 112.26 ¥ Á h* - he
Ë T02 ¯ Ë 311.2 ˜¯ h N,divergent = * ...(10.66)
h - hes
= 110.01 kPa
The pressure rise coefficient
p - p1 110.01 - 100
CPR = 2 = = 0.732
p01 - p1 113.68 - 100
Exit-area-to-inlet-area ratio is determined by use of
continuity equation
m = r1V1 A1 = r2 V2 A2
p
Using r =
RT
A2 p T V 100 ¥ 309.4 ¥ 150
we get = 1 2 1= = 2.343
A1 T1 p2 V2 300 ¥ 110.01 ¥ 60

Another cause of irreversibility in the nozzles

and diffusers is flow separation, which induces
strong turbulence near the nozzle wall. Flow sep-
In the preceeding section of this chapter, the flow
aration occurs when the angle of divergence in a
through the nozzles and diffusers is approximated
convergent–divergent nozzle is made too large.
isentropic. Actual expansion through nozzles is
Consequently, the flow area increases faster than
non-isentropic flow. It is due to presence of irre-
the fluid expands. Thus the included (cone) angle
versibilies at the surface of flow and within the fluid
of the divergent duct is usually kept less than 20°C.
itself. The primary cause of irreversibly in nozzles
(and diffusers) is the presense of frictional effects, The frictional losses in the nozzle depends upon
which are due to the material of construction, size, shape and surface
because the wall surface in the large nozzles occu-
(i) friction between fluid and wall surface of pies a smaller potion of total flow volume.
nozzle, and
The effect of friction in a nozzle can be summa-
(ii) friction within the fluid itself. rized as
The friction between the wall surface and fluid
(i) Reduction in enthalpy drop,
molecules makes the expansion adiabatic but not
(ii) Reheating of fluid,
isentropic. The energy lost in overcoming the fric-
(iii) Reduction in exit velocity,
tion is used to reheat the fluid and the enthalpy and
entropy of fluid increase during the process. (iv) Increase in specific volume, and
The convergent portion of the nozzle is smaller (v) Decrease in mass flow rate.
than the divergent portion. Thus the wall friction
is small in the convergent portion as compared to