MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE

MASTERS DEGREE IN DISASTER MITIGATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Research Project

Topic: Examining the Infrastructure vulnerability to Disaster Risks in Kakamega County.

Chepkorir Abigael

CDS/G/55400/2020
ABSTRACT

This research on the Examination on the impacts of infrastructure development on Vulnerability

Index in Kakamega County seeks to find out if infrastructure development is exposing the
County to Risks. The Objectives of the examination is to Establish on the Risks and the extend of
exposure that have been associated with the infrastructure development in the last 10 years,
establish on how the community at large (Government, public, NGO's, Civil Society) is
mitigating against the impacts of the risks and establish sustainable solutions to the exposure to
risks associated with the infrastructure development. This will be carried out using citizens
research and historical research design by sampling the respondents using stratified sampling
method then the data will be collected through interviews and Questionnaires. Data analysis will
be done through (descriptive method) HPSS to find out vulnerability index of the County in
order to initiate the sustainable mitigation measures to the risks associated with infrastructure
development in Kakamega County.
INTRODUCTION

Infrastructure development is the construction of basic foundational services in order to stimulate

economic growth and quality of life improvement. Most advanced economies have gone through
periods of intensive infrastructure building that have improved the efficiency and
competitiveness of regions.Sustainable Development Goal number 9, which requires nations to
Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation envisage the infrastructure agenda in vision 2030 and its target 9.1states that there is
need to Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and
transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus
on affordable and equitable access for all

Infrastructure is a pillar to every development agenda because it’s an enabler. Developed nations
did grow well and fast because of infrastructure as compared with developing and least
developed nations which includes industries, ports and roads construction and agricultural
production. For instance, transportation infrastructure, as a complex network, connects cities and
accommodates human activities coupling the social, economic and environmental systems with
the urbanization and population growth. Additionally, the transportation network contributes to
the socioeconomic development and the increased quality of life through generating inter- or
intra-city connections during urbanization. In detail, transportation infrastructure among cities
leads to urban aggregation and diffusion, greatly boosting the regional and national economic
development .The infrastructure deficit is much more evident in rural and remote areas, where
the lack of adequate infrastructure often affects the development of the populations of those
areas, as they do not enjoy the same service availability, quality and cost as the urban areas of the
same country. One example is the low percentage of the road network that is paved, particularly
the stretches of the secondary and tertiary networks in rural and remote areas, which represent up
to 85% of the region’s total network and where on average less than 25% of the network is paved
(Jaimurzina and Sánchez, 2017). The lack of connectivity or poor maintenance of secondary and
tertiary road networks can cause temporary losses in connectivity or substantial increases in
travel times, which end up hindering access to basic education or health services or the labor
market. For example, the poor condition of tertiary roads used by small and medium sized coal-
mining companies in Colombia to transport their products not only lead to significant cost
overruns that may end up excluding many producers from the market, but also to high negative
externalities for the population and environment (Duque, Medina and Saade Hazin, 2017), even
affecting the lives of those not linked to mining activities. Infrastructure plays a key role for the
question of whether a hazard turns into a disaster. On one hand, infrastructure is of key
importance for relief and response work. In the case of a flood, for example, you need reliable
streets, bridges and airports in order to get support and relief into the right places quickly.
Infrastructure also plays an increasing role for vulnerability in the first place. SDGs recognize
the provision of basic infrastructure services as a priority. However, extending service coverage
to 100% of the population represents a huge challenge for the region’s countries as it implies
reaching even the most scattered and isolated communities. Some national government initiatives
in the have sought to provide universal coverage to close those gaps, and there are numerous
plans, programs and projects launched by national and subnational governments or the private
sector that provide partial coverage to marginalized areas or those that lack assistance (Sánchez
and others, 2017). However, the irrational planning of transportation infrastructure also generates
negative effects, such as the ecological destruction, increased traffic accidents, climate change,
CO2 emissions and lower transport efficiency, negative impacts have exposed and made it
vulnerable to disaster risks.

DEFINE VULNERBILITY ACCORDING TO KILUVA AND OTHERS

Disaster risk in sub-Saharan African countries is multi-faceted and fast changing. Across the 44
countries and during the decade of 2008–2018, over 157 million persons were directly and
indirectly affected by disasters; in the majority of cases these were associated with natural
hazards. Rapid population growth, urbanization, informal land occupation and poverty are
among the key drivers of exposure and vulnerability across African countries. However, in many
African countries, the rate of infrastructure development, regulatory structures and risk
management capacity have not kept pace to counter new risks associates with rapid population
growth, urbanization and climate change.

Infrastructure can drive up disaster vulnerability’. Collapsed bridges, unsafe power grids,
interrupted water supply can turn natural hazards into disasters. (UN expert Matthias Garschagen
2016 World Risk Report). Western Africa - countries like Togo, Benin and Nigeria are highly
exposed to floods and droughts and, sea-level rise.They have many development challenges, like
healthcare, infrastructure, quality of the environment, which drive up the vulnerability.

Vulnerability relates to a number of factors, including Physical factors(poor design and

construction of buildings, unregulated land use planning), Social factors( poverty and inequality,
marginalization, social exclusion and discrimination by gender, social status, disability and age
(amongst other factors) psychological factors, Economic factors(the uninsured informal sector,
vulnerable rural livelihoods, dependence on single industries, globalization of business and
supply chains), Environmental factors(poor environmental management, overconsumption of
natural resources, decline of risk regulating ecosystem services, climate change, etc.

In addition, vulnerability is determined by historical, political, cultural and institutional and

natural resource processes that shape the social and environmental conditions people find
themselves existing within. These processes produce a range of immediate unsafe conditions
such as living in dangerous locations or in poor housing, ill-health, political tensions or a lack of
local institutions or preparedness measures.

Systemic risk in sub-Saharan Africa poses a threat to efforts to eradicate poverty and ensure
sustainable development. A range of factors play a role in conditioning systemic risk in sub-
Saharan Africa, including transboundary shocks, demographic challenges linked to urbanization,
climate change, poverty and conflict. These factors interact and combine to produce cascading
patterns of risk. Rural poverty, for example, drives both rapid urbanization (which can
overwhelm municipal authorities) and a reliance on natural resources (which degrades rural
ecosystems).

African countries are undergoing rapid urbanization: the urban population in Africa increased
sixteen-fold from 33 million people in 1950 to 548 million people in 2018 and is projected to
increase by 50 per cent (824 million) by 2030 and to triple (1,489 million) by 2050. Urbanization
in Africa is being shaped by a complex interaction between processes including current and
historical urban planning policies and practices, traditional land ownership systems, migration,
private-sector development interests and direct foreign investment flows. The vulnerability of
urban areas to hazards stems from a wide range of processes including unsustainable
consumption and production systems, pressure on ecosystems, climate change, poor planning,
land use change and population pressures
Kenya is located in the Greater Horn of Africa region, which is highly vulnerable to the impacts
of climate change. More than 80% of the country’s landmass is arid and semi-arid land (ASAL)
with poor infrastructure, and other developmental challenges. Climate hazards have caused
considerable losses across the country’s different sectors over the years. The main climate
hazards include droughts and floods which cause economic losses estimated at 3% of the
country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus, livelihoods and economic activities are highly
vulnerable to climatic fluctuations

Kenya experiences a number of natural hazards, the most common being weather related,
including floods, droughts, landslides, lightening/thunderstorms, wild fires, and strong winds.

The arid and semi-arid lands are also more prone to harsh weather conditions, making the
communities within this region vulnerable to natural hazards, mainly droughts.Seasonal floods
may affect various parts of the country especially along the flood plains in the Lake Victoria
basin and the Tana River. Landslides and mudslides occur during the long rainy season from
March to May, which usually affects the western Nyanza and north Rift Valley provinces.

Kenya’s economy remains highly dependent on a number of climate-sensitive sectors, including

agriculture, tourism and energy production, Climate change is expected to adversely affect the
stability of Kenya’s agricultural sector—with particular concern being raised regarding the
vulnerability of the country’s millions of smallholder farmers. Understanding of precisely how
the sector will be affected is limited. Studies have identified the potential for greater production
in the highlands and lower production in the ASALs, and potential impacts on key crops such as
maize

In 2018, Sinai dam in Nakuru county broke down and it caused a number of deaths and
destruction of homes and schools.

In Kakamega County infrastructure vulnerability to disasters according to the data from disaster
management at the County is huge. The infrastructure affected by disaster risks include mining,
housing, roads and bridge construction, schools and health facilities. And a number of facilities
have been exposed to disasters like fires, floods, mine collapse,mudslides,mine cave inns etc.
Problem statement

The big 4 agenda of the president of Kenya has infrastructure development as the key and we
have in the past 10 years witnessed rapid infrastructure development in various parts of the
country which has been replicated in Kakamega county. Infrastructure is a pillar to development
but can be destroyed by disasters if disaster risk reduction is not undertaken. This has been
witnessed in any countries where ports, roads, schools, bridges, mines, houses have been
completely destroyed and lives lost.

According to Keipi and Tyson (2002), vulnerability may be evaluated from various standpoints
(physical, social, political, technological, institutional, environmental, cultural and educational).
Vulnerability to natural disasters is the result of anthropogenic factors; that is, factors that result
from the interaction between human beings and nature. Additionally, vulnerability is a
consequence of the individual and political decisions that a society makes before a hazard
occurs, which are evident once the disaster takes place (ECLAC-IDB, 2000).

Poor infrastructure has also caused disasters for example the poor dam construction in Sinai took
away many lives, destroyed a market center and schools. Another example is the report from
post disaster assessment of Kakamega primary school indicated that the building did not follow
the building codes also during the fire incidences that have occurred in many schools ,it has been
established that most dormitories and other school infrastructure are exposed or vulnerable to
disasters like fire and terrorism.

This research will help the County Government to review their policies on DRR in order to
strengthen the enforcement of codes to reduce disaster risks, while the NGO’s will find more
guidance on how they will facilitate the community at large to reduce risks associated with
infrastructure development. Finally the School of Disaster management and humanitarian
assistance in Masinde Muliro University will find more insights on how the students can improve
skills on DRR
Research Objectives

This research seeks to examine the infrastructure vulnerability to disaster risks with the
objectives of:

1.Assesing the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster risks in Kakamega County

2.Finding out the Community’s contribution towards the vulnerability index of infrastructure to
disaster risks in Kakamega County.

3.Establishing the sustainable solutions to the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster

risks in Kakamega County

JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH

This research will go along way in finding the vulnerabilty index of kakamega county I order to
improve how infrastructure is developed to prevent it from the disasters while the NGO’s will
find insights on how their development projects can include Disaster Risk reduction in the
planning process then finally school of disaster management and humanitarian assistance will
find more information on how students can enhance their knowledge on DRR in infrastructure
development

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

1.Disaster Risk reduction is a new concept the government, civil servants may not be able to give
us all the data.
2.Data management is also an issue since county government do not yet have a library that is
dedicated for DRM

3.This research will collect data using citizen’s science design which will require finances, with
the fact that Kakamega county is vast then there will be constraints

DELIMITATION

1.This research will cover infrastructure development in Roads, schools, health and Agriculture
sector only.

2.it will confine itself to Kakamega county

3.Data will be collected using historical method

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.Has the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster risks been done in in Kakamega
County?

2.Is there a community contribution towards the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster
risks in Kakamega County?

3.Are their any sustainable solutions to the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster risks
in Kakamega County?

ASSUMPTIONS

1.It is assumed that this research will find data and that the findings will culminate into finding
mitigation measures to the disaster risks that affect infrastructure in Kakamega County.

2.That the citizens will be willing to give information

ABBREVIATIONS

DRR-Disaster Risk Reduction

DRM-Disaster Risk Management

KRCS-Kenya Red cross society

US -united States

PSAs-Protective Security Advisors

SIA -Social Impact Assessment

EIA-Environmental Impact Assessment

 LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter Two

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Infrastructure development vulnerability to disaster ris

Policies

Enforcement

Public Participation

Sustainable development

Sustainable infrastructure development to achieve DRR

The conceptual framework on infrastructure vulnerability explains how the two interacts and
how their impacts can be mitigated against through policy implementation,public
participation,environmental impact assessments,environmental Audit and code enforcement
 Chapter Two

Literature Review

Assessing the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster risks in Kakamega County

During Nepal earthquake, Kathmandu's international airport was not up to dealing with the
quantity of incoming aid yet it was the main transport nodal point to get the relief work going
while many damaged streets and bridges also hindered the flow of items from the airport as
compared to Switzerland, for example, the 2016 world risk report data clearly shows that
Switzerland has, per capita and per square kilometer, a higher number of paved roads and
bridges. It also has more helicopters and alternate airports and airstrips. All of this helps with
short-term disaster response. Having economic buffers also makes a huge difference in terms of
recovery.

In the Sichuan earthquake in China, the major problem was not a lack of building codes but that
they were not adhered to due to corruption and poor enforcement. That's why a lot of the school
buildings caved in, which massively contributed to the high death toll among school children.
The development visions of all East African Community (EAC) Partner States recognize that
energy is a vital input to socioeconomic development. Energy is identified as a foundation and an
infrastructural “enabler” upon which to build economic, social, and political development. The
vulnerability of the energy sector is likely to be worsened by the challenge of climate change. To
address this, the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13 calls for urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts and proposes to “strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to
climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries; integrate climate change measures
into national polices, strategies, and planning; and improve education, awareness-raising, and
human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and
early warning.” Large hydropower generation currently accounts for 37–90 percent of total
power generation in the EAC Partner States. To improve security of the power supply, the
Partner States have developed Power Master Plans (PMPs) aimed at increasing power generation
and diversifying the sources to include geothermal, natural gas, wind, solar, and coal.
In 2009, the EAC Strategy on Scaling-up Access to Modern Energy Services was developed to
address energy challenges. Both the EAC Climate Change Strategy (2011) and Master Plan
(2011–2031) recognize energy as a priority sector that is vulnerable to climate change. Biomass
dependence in the EAC Partner States is between 80 and 90 percent. Charcoal demand is
growing while forest cover is diminishing. Due to climate change and unsustainable management
of biomass resources (especially wood) in the Partner States, forest cover and wood growing
stock per unit area has declined both in total standing volume and mean annual increment per
unit area.
The EAC Partner States are experiencing growth in air transport. Total interstate traffic in East
Africa is about 766,000 passengers. The major interstate routes in the region are Nairobi–
Entebbe and Nairobi– Dar es Salaam. The transport sector and its infrastructure in East Africa
are generally affected by three key climatic factors: precipitation, temperature and wind.
Precipitation, in the form of floods (flash floods, river floods, mudslides, landslides, and silting),
destroys roads, pipelines, and railway lines and causes silting, hampering shipping. Lake and sea
level changes affect ship and boating docking; while fog and mist impair visibility for road, air,
and water transport. Winds, especially gusty winds and sand storms, pose great danger to air and
road transport and strong wind speed and variable directions can severely affect air transport.
Finally, high temperatures and heatwaves can result in the melting of road asphalt and buckling
of metal railway, while freezing temperatures can loosen road particles. Impacts of climate
change on the transport sector have negative effects on other sectors of the economy. There is a
well-structured road network in East Africa, but the condition of most rural roads makes it VIA
Chapter 6: Energy and Infrastructure Baseline for East Africa 9 difficult to travel or move goods,
especially during the wet season. The state of infrastructure and ability to bounce back also
directly affects other sectors driving the economy of the EAC Partner States. Like the energy
sector, the transportation sectors are also sensitive to biophysical as well as socioeconomic
factors. The biophysical indicators used to map sensitivity were anthropogenic land use/land
cover change, slope, and soils. The socioeconomic indicators included population density and
poverty index. Compared to exposure, the sensitivity component has greater influence on the
overall EAC energy/transport vulnerability index. The overall impression is that EAC is medium
to highly sensitive to climatic stressors. The sensitivity map shows that the areas with high
population and soil vulnerabilities coupled with high rates of vegetation loss for the most
significant components for overall sensitivity. The EAC policy on transport has largely been
captured in the EAC Treaty, which covers all modes of transport except pipelines. The Transport
and Communications Strategy and Priority Investment Plan was developed in 2010 by Eastern
and Southern African (ESA) states, represented by the EAC, Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA), Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Indian
Ocean Commission, and Southern African Development Community as observe

Topography Slope gradient (in Slope gradient (in Slope and elevation also influence
%), DEMs SRTM 3 %), DEMs SRTM 3 accessibility of biomass for energy
sec (30m) sec (30m)
Waterbodies affect bridge maintenance
Locational
Power sites for Waterbodies
georeferences
the EAC (rivers) road
network

Floods Flood risk maps Increased flooding improves power

Flood risk maps
generation but destroys surface
transportation

Soil type particle size affects the stability, drain

Geology Soil type ability, erodibility and hence suitability for
road/dam construction, harbors, airports,
etc.

Rivers Rivers Every hydropower station is associated

Drainage and river with a drainage basin v Presence of rivers
basins increases potential for flooding, bridge
construction, maintenance, etc
Economic
Poverty index
development Poverty index Higher poverty levels lead to more biomass
energy demand and hence degradation of
land cover v Reduces tax revenues for
transport infrastructure repairs
Population
Population
 Population density density
Higher population leads to more biomass
energy and transport demand and hence
degradation of land cover

Table 1: Parameters and indicators used in vulnerability mapping of the Energy and Transportation
Sector (Sensitivity) (EAST AFRICA)

In Kenya, a section of the Mai Mahiu–Narok road was washed away by flash floods in May
2012. The storm water was from the eastern slopes of Mau Hills. Due to the depth of the water
and incessant rains, the road remained closed for one week. Traffic was diverted to other roads
leading to delays and extra costs. The same road had been closed the for a day due to floods near
Suswa market. In this case part of the problem was attributable to terrain and change in land use.
Further, on May 11, 2015, Nairobi was submerged in floods after a downpour of slightly over
two hours resulting in death and destruction. The delays in traffic exceeded 6 hours. Part of the
problem in this case was attributable to old drainage systems. In both cases, however, the volume
of the floods exceeded predictions and was in part due to climate change.

In Kakamega county many schools have been closed down due to collapse of toilets and
classrooms which this research would want to find out if the collapse was caused by disasters or
if the infrastructure was poorly done thus becoming vulnerable. Same applies to various bridges,
roads, agricultural facilities like sugar factories and health infrastructure although hazard maps
have been developed there is no research carried out to examine the vulnerability of the
infrastructure to disasters identified in kakamega as below:

Disaster/Event Location History Impact Recovery

Period

1 Landslides/ Malava, 2004,2007,2014 Loss of Lives, 2 year

Mudslides Shinyalu and and 2017 Livelihoods
Ikolomani and Property

2 Floods Mumias 2018,2020 Infrastructure/ 2 year

West,
 Matungu, resources
Khwisero, Damaged
Navakholo,
Trauma
Lugari and
Mumias East Increased

3 Fire All Sub- For the last 10 years dependency 2 year

Counties constantly
High poverty
(More
Levels
prevalent in
Lurambi, School Drop
Mumias outs
West and
Destruction of
Malava)
houses
4 Land Ikolomani, 2018,2019 and 3 year
Land
Degradation(Deep Mumias 2020
Degradation
gullies) West and
Navakholo Human and

5 Human Conflicts All Sub- 2013,2017 and Livestock 1 year

Counties 2019 Epidemics

(More
Dilapidating
prevalent in
injuries
Shinyalu,
Ikolomani,
Malava and
Matungu)

6 Human wildlife Along River 2020 Over 2

conflicts Lusumu years

6 Drowning Matungu, 2018,2019,2020,20 1 year

Lugari and
 Mumias East 21

7 Lightening Lugari, 2004,2018,2021 1 year

Mumias
East,
Likuyani,
Khwisero,
Navakholo,
Mumias
West,
Malava and
Shinyalu

8 Human Diseases All Sub- 2018 and 2020 1 year

Outbreak Counties

9 Livestock Diseases All Sub- 1 year

Outbreak Counties

1 Pollution Municipaliti Unquantifi

0 es and all able
urban areas
(most
prevalent in
Malava,
Lugari,
Mumias
West,
Mumias East
and
Lurambi)
 1 Crop Diseases All Sub- 1 year
1 Outbreak Counties

1 Heavy Accidents Lugari, 2019 and 2020 Unquantifi

2 Malava and able
Lurambi

1 Drug and Substance All Sub- 2018 and 2020 Unquantifi

3 abuse Counties able

1 Prolonged Dry Lugari 2004,2007,2012 Over 2

4 Spell years

1 Pest Infestation All Sub 2019 Over 2

5 counties years

Table2.Kakamega County Risk Profile. Source:Kakamega County Disaster Risk Management

plan 2018.

Finding out the Community’s contribution towards the vulnerability index of

infrastructure to disaster risks in Kakamega County

Social Impact Assessment theory accepts that social, economic and biophysical impacts are
interconnected and that change in any one of these domains will lead to changes in the others.
Seen in this way, SIA has clear linkages to EIA and other forms of impact assessment, as well as
with vulnerability and sustainable livelihoods analysis. Guidance on SIA makes it clear that good
practice in project design and implementation is risk-averse.

A community encompass the Public, government, NGO’s. All these have played a role in
exposing the infrastructure to disaster risks.Social and economic structure of a society is a major
determinant of the vulnerability of the population to the impact of disasters

Developing nations in particular, experience pervasive risk of devastation, human and property
loss resulting from human and natural disasters (Gbadegesin, et al, 2010). According to
Henderson (2004), this level of risk is attributable to socio-economic stress, aging and
inadequate physical infrastructure, weak education and preparedness for disaster and insufficient
fiscal and economic resources to carefully implement the preparedness, response, mitigation and
recovery components of integrated emergency management.

Degradation of the environment is processes induced by human behavior and activities

(sometimes combined with natural hazards) that damage the natural resource base or adversely
alter natural processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and many contribute to an
increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of hazards. Technological hazards
represent dangers originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures,
infrastructure failures or certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

The linkages between natural hazards and human-driven disasters and distressing environmental
and humanitarian situations are increasingly present, particularly as the poor are compelled to
exploit scarce environmental resources simply for survival. Deforestation, land degradation, and
related food security are shaped by human resource use (e.g. urban squatting on marginalized
hillsides), in turn sometimes creating conditions for flooding, landslides and drought.

Physical tangible assets such as stronger homes, hospitals etc are crucial to reducing risks from
disasters, but there are many less tangible assets which people depend on to recover and survive.
For instance, following an earthquake disaster in India on 26 January 2001, an evaluation by the
London-based Disasters Emergencies Committee (DEC), one villager said, “We received 2,000
tents for 900 households because we had a prominent politician in the community”. Some
villagers proved more capable than others in accessing aid for relief and reconstruction. Why?
The DEC’s evaluation found that “Women, lower income groups and those representing smaller
number stated they were left out of decision-making in the relief committees and hence were also
omitted from relief distribution”. This tells us that decision making impacts the vulnerability
index of a community to disasters.

Non-tangible assets are important. They include alternative skills, training and disaster
awareness (human assets); community organization, self-help and solidarity (social assets);
representation in decision-making and the ability to lobby leaders for action (political assets).
These non-tangible resources are often ignored by disaster managers, but prove pivotal in
sustaining disaster preparedness, mitigation and rehabilitation. The non-tangible assets which
include skills training to improve earning opportunities, raising awareness of vulnerable people’s
right, building the capacity of self-help community groups, and strengthening the involvement of
the poor in the decision-making process should be enhanced.

On policy formulation and implementation, both the EAC Climate Change Strategy (2011) and
the Master Plan (2011–2031) recognize energy as a priority for regional development while
acknowledging that the sector is vulnerable to climate variability and change. These strategic
documents consequently call for climate change mitigation measures by EAC Partner States to
increase availability and accessibility of sustainable, reliable, and affordable renewable energy
resources.

Kenya’s policy is yet to be fully enacted. The latest version (Energy Policy, 2014), while
recognizing the role of renewable energy in the country’s energy mix, does not have robust
strategies on biomass development, for example. The Energy Act, 2006, the primary legislation
on energy in Kenya, is currently undergoing review to align it with both the 2010 Constitution
and the country’s Vision 2030. It similarly emphasizes petroleum and electricity at the expense
of renewable energy which exposes the country

Increased pressure on resources accompanied by evidence of environmental deterioration,

poverty inequality, causes environmental damage. understanding and anticipating future hazard
events, communities, public authorities and development organizations can minimize the risk
disasters pose to socio-economic development.  For instance, during flood events, a sustainable
risk reduction must take note of increased flood that is caused by the conversion of natural
landscapes into agricultural areas such that flood mitigation does not jeopardize agricultural
practices with an attendant risk of food insecurity.

In essence, community participation is required since members of the community are directly
affected by the disaster and are the ones who need to take decisions to reduce the risk; it is
therefore unlikely that risk reduction will be successful without active involvement of the local
community in the critical stages of disaster risk reduction efforts. Thus for sustainable risk
reduction during disasters, particularly those that may lead, even if in the short-term, to reduced
access to natural and environmental resources, local agreement must be sought and obtained to
forestall a misinterpretation of the project intention by the local people for which the project is
targeted.

Establishing the sustainable solutions to the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster

risks in Kakamega County

Investments in disaster risk reduction Despite continued economic losses resulting from
disasters, domestic resources devoted to DRR activities are underfinanced in Africa. Evidence
from sixteen African countries shows that, on average, four per cent of national planned budgets
is related to DRR. However, only one percent of the national budget is directly dedicated to DRR
interventions. Increasing domestic resources devoted to pre-disaster DRR investments is
essential to reduce the impacts of disasters and to achieve the Sendai Framework targets.
Furthermore, increased DRR investment would allow governments to reduce reliance on official
development assistance to cover the post-disaster needs of their population. Disaster risk
reduction (DRR) investments not only protect productive assets and lives, but if implemented
appropriately, they could yield a number of additional benefits that could enhance well-being and
resilience.

To avoid exposure, Infrastructure development should be done in non-exposed areas. In other

words, if you do future planning for a new airport or power plant, you ought to think about flood
scenarios in the context of climate change - not just in the present, but 10 or 20 years in the
future. The second step is susceptibility, in terms of the fragility of a building. Are there building
codes in place in order for buildings to withstand earthquakes? And, even more importantly, are
those building codes enforced

Thirdly, how can infrastructure cope with certain situations? Are hospitals aware of alternate
evacuation routes in the event of a major flood. Right now those topics are on the agenda, but
more conceptually than practically.

There is need to raise awareness among the next generation of risk managers, politicians, that
disaster risk also encompasses building regulations, law enforcement, the level of corruption and
so forth. All these things can drive up vulnerability and susceptibility towards these hazards.
Infrastructure vulnerability assessment

In U.S.A these voluntary, nonregulatory assessments are a foundational element of the National

Infrastructure Protection Plan's risk-based implementation of protective programs designed to
prevent, deter, and mitigate the risk of a terrorist attack while enabling timely, efficient response
and restoration in an all-hazards, post-event situation.

Because most U.S. critical infrastructure is privately owned, the effectiveness of assessments
depends upon the voluntary collaboration of private sector owners and operators. Protective
Security Advisors (PSAs) work locally to foster this collaboration and facilitate technical
assistance to support enhancement of the security and resilience of the Nation's critical
infrastructure. Assessments are offered through the PSAs at the request of critical infrastructure
owners and operators and other state, local, tribal, and territorial officials.

-Move away from interventions targeted at addressing single hazards to actions that consider all
possible vulnerabilities.

• Invest in actions aimed at addressing the underlying drivers of vulnerability

Establish an effective data system for DRR and a framework for identifying and documenting
lessons learned and use this to inform future DRR policies and practice.

Strengthen disaster risk governance by defining clear mandates for various stakeholders,
including civil society, traditional authorities, community organizations, non-governmental
organizations and donors.

Encourage collaboration between these stakeholders and national government to formulate and
implement legislations and measures to regulate informal sectors. Strengthen institutional
capacity for DRR through training to build internal expertise.

Strengthen financial capacity by developing and implementing policies to improve own revenue
mobilization.

Involve communities in DRR and map vulnerable populations.

Improve urban planning to reduce the ecological impacts of urbanization and the vulnerability of
urban dwellers to hazards and upgrade informal settlements to reduce the vulnerability of their
residents.

One of the biggest challenges facing many African countries is securing sufficient levels of
investment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Inadequate political will,
financial constraints and school curricula do not currently support advancement of science and
technology. As a result, many countries in Africa have limited ability to use scientific
information effectively for DRR. Efforts should continue at the national, regional and continental
levels to strengthen the generation of risk information and support capacity development in
information management. Governments are encouraged to seek ways to share information and
explore the benefit of new advances in data and information management. Multi-hazard and
systemic risk assessment can greatly contribute to the implementation and monitoring of the
Program of Action (POA) for the Implementation of the Sendai Framework in Africa.

Governments have the primary responsibility for securing and facilitating access to financing for
disaster prevention, reduction, relief, recovery and reconstruction. Various mechanisms have
been identified for financing (pre- and post-disaster) DRR investment in Africa, which adopt
different institutional arrangements for eligibility, access, use and governance of the funds they
provide

Disaster risk reduction at community level Community-based disaster risk management

(CBDRM) occurs when communities at risk are engaged actively in DRR. Many actors at
community level have critical knowledge, experience and capacities with regards to building
resilience, and have developed innovative approaches to reducing the everyday risks they face.
However, these community-based approaches are rarely scaled up or systematically embedded
within national policies and practices.

Grassroots initiatives by communities, including young people, are essential to building

resilience to disasters. Local organizations at community level are involved in a series of actions
including: community-based risk informed early actions, mainstreaming DRR education,
strengthening application of indigenous knowledge and gender mainstreaming. There is a need to
strengthen the engagement of community-based organizations with local and national
governments and bring their voices to global platforms.
There is a need for systematic engagement with the perspectives of young people, which is of
particular importance given the demographic profile of the region. There is clearly much to be
gained for governments at all levels by harnessing the entrepreneurial and communication skills
of young people, and an explicit integration of the young people into community-based DRR
practices should be a priority. The region is characterized both by real challenges to community
involvement in DRR and examples of good practice. Challenges that hinder the ability of local
actors to engage with DRR include poverty, lack of infrastructure, poor natural resources
management, gender inequality and high migration. The weak engagement of civil society
organizations (CSO) in national DRR platforms (and sometimes even in local government) and
the lack of legal frameworks for volunteer management are another barrier to enhancing the
impact of DRR actions at the community level. Good practices include citizen participation in
risk assessments, prevention and preparedness (particularly early warning) and community
planning to address the complex interaction of hazards at the local level. There are also good
examples of where DRR is integrated into education programs that draw on experiences at the
local level. Recommendations

Implement policies, legal frameworks and mechanisms to increase citizen participation and
capacities and engagement of civil society organizations.

Promote programs that increase knowledge and opportunities of engagement for young people
and women, including through volunteering.

Policy suggestions on possible adaptation options to current vulnerability and impacts of climate
variability and change for the transport sector include: v Policies: Update national and subnational
transport policies to take into consideration climate change issues, especially adaptation measures in
line with the Paris Agreement, the EAC Climate Change Master Plan and Policy and other relevant
policies. v Planning: Prioritize national projects and programs in response to climate change impacts as
well as mitigation and adaptation measures for financing. v Mainstreaming: Domesticate the various
agreements and protocols on road transport in the region, including strengthening the implementation
and monitoring mechanisms in respect of transport agreements. v Institutional Capacity: Strengthen the
institutional framework and capacity of transport institutions and stakeholders in risk-based approaches
for identifying, analyzing, planning, and implementing transport projects. v Financing: Provide budgetary
allocation for climate adaptation activities including climate vulnerability assessments, climate resilience
transportation planning, design and construction, as well as projects to protect, upgrade, or overhaul
assets based on criticality. v Risk Management and Planning: Develop risk-based asset management
plans and allocate resources to secure critical assets and review disaster preparedness and emergency
planning considering vulnerability to climate change as well as early warning systems. v Data and
Information: Develop tools, guidelines, and protocols for pilot projects for national and subnational
adaptation in the transport sector working with other relevant sectors to enhance shared benefits,
enhance sustainability, and support economic development and poverty reduction. v Capacity Building:
Engage in long-range transportation planning and land use with climate change as an influencing factor
and enhance awareness of climate change among all actors (strategic and effective communication)

Chapter Three
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This research will be carried out in Kakamega county using the historical research method to get
new insights, this will include use of citizens science design, Questionnaire schedules and
interviews. This is to find the vulnerability index of infrastructure to disaster risks in Kakamega
County.

3.1 Research area

This study will be undertaken in Kakamega County. Kakamega County is in the former Western
Province of Kenya and borders Vihiga County to the South, Siaya County to the West, Bungoma
and Trans Nzoia Counties to the North and Nandi and Uasin Gishu Counties to the East.Its
capital and largest town is Kakamega. It has a population of 1,867,579 and an area of
3,033.8 km2

The County has an altitude range from 1,240 metres to 2,000 metres above sea level. Southern
part of the county is hilly and made of granites which raises it 1950m above sea level. Nandi
Escarpment is a key feature on the eastern border of the county with steep cliffs rising from
1700m to 2000m. The county is also endowed with a number of hills like Misango, Imanga,
Eregi, Butieri, Sikhokhochole, Mawe Tatu, Lirhanda, Kiming’ini hills among others.
As per 2019 census Kakamega county had a total population of 1,867,579 people, of which
897,133 are males, 970,406 being females and 40 intersex persons. There are 433,207
households with an average size of 4.3 persons per household and a population density of 618
people per square kilometer.

The county is covered by 4,451.3 km of road network. of this 1,308.90 km is covered by earth
surface, 2,792.25 is covered by gravel, 939.32 km is marram surface and 307.5 km is covered by
bitumen.
There are 14 Post Offices with 8,400 installed letter boxes, 6,969 rented letter boxes and 1,431
vacant letter boxes.

Services and Urbanization in percentage

Stats for Kakamega County

County
Urbanisation 15.2

Literacy 72.7
Attending School (15-18 Yrs) 76.3

Paved Roads 4.9

Good Roads 54.1

Electricity Access 5.6

Poverty Rate 53

Stats for the County

3.2 Sampling

This will be done using stratified sampling method because the citizens science will involve the
public while the questionnaire will be used purposively in order to get enough and data which
can be verified.
3.3 Sample Size

This research will gather data from 8 county departmental heads and or Directors, carry out 3
regional public participation meetings from various parts of the county and 3 county disaster
management officers.

3.4 Target Population

The target group to find the information is the general public, directors and heads of county
departments that are responsible in infrastructure development, the NGO’s that carry out DRR
related activities and finally the Disaster Management officers at the County.

3.5 Research design

This research will use citizens science design and Historical design because disaster impact is
felt by the public more often when a road is cut off agricultural products will be destroyed while
the civil servants will give us the data collected over time on the interaction between
vulnerability and infrastructure is in the County.

3.6 Research Instruments

This research will use Questionnaires and interview schedules to gather data.

3.7 Ethical considerations

The data collected will be protected from misuse and information gathered will be properly
stored. The right of secrecy will be kept for those who will provide information

3.8 Data analysis procedure

This research data will be analyzed using descriptive method

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