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I. DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. For RIGID PIPES
m k
= c=
V 
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume, which is defined as For NON – RIGID PIPES
volume per unit mass.
k
1 m c=
= =  k d 
 V  1 +
Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density  E  t 
of a well-known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative The time for the pressure wave to travel from A to B and back again:
density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the 2L
density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually T=
water at 4°C, for which ρwater = 1000 kg/m3). That is, c
Instantaneous Closure (tc = 0)
 The resulting shock due to instantaneous closure is given by:
SG =
water Ph = cv
Rapid Closure (tc < 2L/c)
It is physically impossible for a valve to be closed instantaneously (tc
 gas = 0). For a rapid closure (tc < 2L/c) the maximum pressure near the
SG =
air valve would still be
The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight or Ph = cv
weight density.
Slow Closure (tc > 2L/c)
s = g For slow closure, the excess pressure produced decreases uniformly
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the from the valve at the valve to zero at the intake. The maximum water-
gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state, expressed as hammer pressure developed is given approximately by:
P = RT 2Lv 
Ph =
where P is the absolute pressure, T is the thermodynamic tc
(absolute) temperature, ρ is the density, and R is the gas
constant.
III. VISCOSITY
The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, and Viscosity is a property that represents the internal resistance of
the temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, designated by K. a fluid to motion or the “fluidity”.
T =T ( C ) + 273.15
o
Kinematic viscosity “𝜈” (Nu) is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of
In the English system, it is the Rankine scale, and the temperature unit the fluid, μ, to its mass density, ρ.
on this scale is the rankine, R. 
=
T =T ( F ) + 459.67
o

Where:
Note: It is customary practice to round the constants 273.15 and 459.67 μ = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec.
to 273 and 460, respectively, but we do not encourage this practice. ρ = density in kg/m3
The properties of an ideal gas at two different states are related to
Common units:
each other and constant temperature:
m2/s or stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/sec = 0.0001 m2/sec)

P1V1 = P2V2 IV. SURFACE TENSION & CAPILLARY EFFECT

The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a
II. COMPRESSIBILITY & SPEED OF SOUND fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces and is known as
Bulk modulus of Compressibility is defined by this equation. surface tension.
P
k Surface tension is the reason that insects can sit on water and a
V needle is able to float on it.
V
The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a
corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area
fluid while the temperature remains constant. per unit volume.
Note: A large value of k indicates that a momentous change in pressure Pressure inside a Droplet of liquid
is needed to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid
with a large k is essentially incompressible. This is typical for liquids and 4
explains why liquids are usually considered to be incompressible. p=
d
Note: Small density changes in liquids can still cause interesting Where:
phenomena in piping systems such as the water hammer— σ = surface tension in N/m
characterized by a sound that resembles the sound produced when a d = diameter of the droplet in m
pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when a liquid in a piping network p = gage pressure in Pa
encounters an abrupt flow restriction (such as a closing valve) and is
locally compressed.

Water Hammer is the resulting shock cause by a sudden decrease in

the velocity of fluid.
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Capillarity (Capillary
action) is the name
given to the behavior of
the liquid in a thin-bore
tube. The rise or fall on a
fluid in a capillary tube
is caused by surface
tension and depends in
the relative magnitudes
of the cohesion of the
liquid and the adhesion
of the liquid to the walls
of the containing vessel.
4 cos
h=
d Note: Under hydrostatic conditions, the pressure is the same at all points
on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided
For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle Ɵ is 0°. that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.
Hence the formula becomes
4 PRESSURE HEAD
h= Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of
d unit weight γ that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
Where:
h = capillary rise or depression in m
γ = unit weight in N/m3 P
h=
d = diameter of the tube in m 
σ = surface tension in Pa

PRESSURE To CONVERT Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. SG
h B = hA A
F SGB
P=
A
Common units: TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a
ABSOLUTE & GAGE PRESSURES horizontal surface submerged in a liquid or a plane surface inside a gas
chamber, the total hydrostatic force (total pressure) is given by:
Gage pressures (Relative Pressures) are pressures above or below
the atmosphere and can be measured by pressure gauges or F = pA
manometers.
where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area.
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s
surface from the weight of the air above it. In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the
total pressure can be found by the following formula:
Common units:
1 atm = 14.7 psi = 760 mmHg = 101.325 kPa

Vacuum pressures are pressures below the atmospheric pressure.

The pressure above absolute zero (vacuum)

Pabs = Pgage + Patm

Pvac = Patm − Pabs

VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation is h, to
lie in the ends of an elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a
and a length of L. Since prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must
be in equilibrium.

P 2 −P1 =  h
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Eq. 1 DAMS
Dams are structures that block the flow of a rover, stream, or other
F =  hA waterway.
Since γℎ̅ is the unit pressure at the centroid of the plane area, pcg, the Purpose of a Dam
formula may also be expressed as: Dams are built for the following purpose:
Eq. 2 1. Irrigation and drinking water
2. Power Supply (Hydroelectric)
F = pcg A 3. Navigation
NOTE: 4. Flood Control
5. Multi – Purpose
Eq. 1 is convenient to use if the plane is submerged in a single
liquid and without gage pressure at the surface of the liquid. Types of Dams
a. Gravity Dams use only the force of the gravity to resist water
However, if the plane is submerged under layers of different pressure.
liquids of if the gage pressure at the surface is not zero. Eq. 2 is b. Embankment Dams is a gravity dam formed out of loose rock,
easier to apply. earth, or a combination of these materials.
c. Arch dams are concrete or masonry structures that curve
Location of F: upstream into a reservoir.
d. Buttress dam consists of a wall, or face, supported by several
Ig buttresses on the downstream side.
e=
AY
Types of Dams
- A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is
Values of 𝑌̅:
raised on its upstream side.
- These forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation
If the plane is Inclined at a certain angle Ɵ with respect to horizontal
and overturn it about its downstream edge or toe.
plane.
- These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam
h and gravitational forces which causes a moment opposite to the
Y= overturning moment.
sin
If the plane is vertical.
Y =h

PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLANE SECTIONS

Rectangle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax Inertiay

b h bh3 hb3
x= y= Ix = Iy =
2 2 12 12

Triangle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax

b+c h bh3
x= y= Ix = Notable formulas to remember:
3 3 36 Location of Ry (𝒙
̅):
RM − OM
x=
Ry
Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax
Factors of Safety
Factors of Safety against sliding:
 r 4  d4 R y
x =r y=r Ix = = FS s =
4 64 Rx
Factors of Safety against overturning:
RM
FS o =
Semi – Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax Inertiay OM
Foundation Pressures
For e ≤ B/6
4r r4 Ry 
x =r y= I x = 0.11r 4 Iy = 6e 
3 q=− 1 
8 B  B
For e > B/6
2R y
q=
3x
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TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVE SURFACES Stability of floating bodies
On a curved surface the forces pA on individual elements differ in
direction, so a simple summation of them may not be made.

Instead, the resultant forces in certain directions may be determined,

and these forces may then be combined vectorially. It is simplest to
calculate horizontal and vertical components of the total force.

Horizontal component of hydrostatic force:

Any curved surface may be projected on to a vertical plane. Take, for
example, the curved surface illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure 2: Upright position

Initial value of MBo

FH = pcg AV .P
I
MBo =
Vdisplaced

Figure 1

Note:
In any given direction, therefore, the horizontal force on any surface
equals the force on the projection of that surface on a vertical plane
perpendicular to the given direction. The line of action of the Figure 3: Stable Position
horizontal force on the curved surface is the same as that of the
force on the vertical projection.

Vertical component of hydrostatic force:

The vertical component of the force on a curved surface may be
determined by considering the fluid enclosed by the curved surface
and vertical projection lines extending to the free surface. Thus
FV =  liqVproj
where Vproj is the volume of the liquid between the free surface liquid
and solid curved surface.

The magnitude of the resultant is obtained from the equation:

Figure 4: Unstable Position
FR = FH 2 + FV 2
Righting Moment and Overturning Moment
BUOYANCY RM = W ( x )
Buoyancy (also known as the buoyant force) is the force exerted on an
object that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid. OM = W ( x )
- The symbol for the magnitude of buoyancy is BF or FB
- As a vector it must be stated with both magnitude and direction. Metacentric Height
• Buoyancy acts upward for the kind of situations encountered MG = MBo  GBo
in everyday experience.
- As with other forces, the SI unit of buoyancy is the newton [N]. Use (-) if G is above Bo
Use (+) if G is below Bo
Archimedes' Principle
The magnitude of the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight Value of MBo
of the fluid it displaces.
B 2  tan2  
BF =  liqVdisplaced MBo = 1 + 
12D  2 
The factors that affect buoyancy are:
a. the density of the fluid,
b. the volume of the fluid displaced, and RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION (MOVING VESSEL)
c. the local acceleration due to gravity. Horizontal Motion
Consider a mass of fluid moving with a linear acceleration a.
The buoyant force is not affected by: Considering a particle in the surface, the forces acting are the weight
a. the mass of the immersed object or W = Mg and the fictitious inertia force (reversed effective force, REF)
b. the density of the immersed object. which is equal to Ma, and the reaction N which must be normal to the
Buoyancy vs. Density surface.
Densities BF > Wobject BF = Wobject BF < Wobject
object rises float on surface a
tan =
ρobject < ρfluid (wholly (partly g
immersed) immersed)
neutral
buoyancy Note: The surface and all planes of equal hydrostatic pressure just be
ρobject = ρfluid (wholly incline at this angle Ɵ with the horizontal.
immersed)
ρobject > ρfluid object sinks
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Inclined Motion Kinetic energy (Velocity Head)
Consider a mass of fluid being accelerated upwards at an inclination α The ability of the fluid mass to do work by its velocity.
with the horizontal so that ax = a cos α and ay = a sin α.
v2
a K .E . =
tan = H 2g
g  aV Potential energy (Elevation Head)
Note: Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for downward The energy possessed by the fluid by its position or elevation with
motion. respect to a datum plane.
H=z
Vertical Motion Potential energy (Pressure Head)
Consider a mass of fluid accelerated upwards or downwards with an
acceleration of a. The forces acting at a point h below the liquid surface P
are the weight of the liquid above the point, γV, the inertia force, Ma, h=
and the pressure force F = pA.

 a TOTAL FLOW ENERGY (E)
p =  1  
 g The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and
Note: Use (+) for upward motion and (-) for downward motion. the potential energies. It can be summarized as:
Note: a is positive for acceleration and a is negative for deceleration
E = K .E + P .E
Rotation (Rotating Vessels)

Notable formulas for rotating vessel. v2 P

E= + +z
Slope of the paraboloid 2g 
2 x
tan = POWER & EFFICIENCY
g Power is the rate at which work is done.
Where: Power
ω = speed of rotation (radian per second) P = Q E
x = distance from the center of rotation to point of analysis (Radius)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2) Efficiency
Pout
Height of the paraboloid =  100
Pin
2 x2 Note:
y=
2g 1 hp = 749 Watts
Where:
ω = speed of rotation (radian per second) BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
x = distance from the center of rotation to point of analysis (Radius) The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2) principles of conservation of energy.
E1 + Eadded − E lost /extraccted = E2
Squared Property of Parabola
x12 x22 Energy Equation w/o HEAD LOST
=
y1 y2 E1 = E2
Volume of Paraboloid of Revolution
1 v12 P1 v2 P
v =  r 2h + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
2 2g  2g 
Where:
r = radius of the paraboloid Energy Equation w/ HEAD LOST
h = height of the paraboloid E1 − HL1−2 = E2
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
DISCHARGE (FLOW RATE: Q) v12 P1 v2 P
Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section + + z1 − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2
per unit of time. 2g  2g 
Volume flow rate (Flow rate)
Q = Av Energy Equation w/ PUMP
Mass flow rate
M = Q
E1 + HA = E2
Weight flow rate
With HEAD LOST
Wf =  Q
E1 + HA − HL1−2 = E2
Where:
Q = discharge in m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow v12 P1 v2 P
v = mean velocity of flow + + z1 + HA = 2 + 2 + z2
ρ = mass density 2g  2g 
γ = weight density
With HEAD LOST
ELEVATION & HEAD
The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 + HA − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2
potential energy. 2g  2g 
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Total Head
Pout = Q HA H = h+
v A2 pA pB
+ −
2g  
Energy Equation w/ TURBINE
E1 − HE = E2 H = Hupstream − Hdownstream

With HEAD LOST Theoretical velocity

E1 − HE − HL1−2 = E2 vt = 2 gH
Actual velocity
v12 P1 v2 P v = Cv 2gH
+ + z1 − HE = 2 + 2 + z2
2g  2g  Theoretical discharge
Qt = A 2gH
With HEAD LOST
Actual discharge
v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 − HE − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2 Q = Cd A 2 gH
2g  2g 
Values of H for various conditions
H =h
Pin = Q HE
p
FLUID MEASUREMENT (STEADY FLOW) H = h+
DEVICE COEFFICIENTS 

Coefficient of Discharge, C or Cd  a
The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual discharge through H = h 1  
the device to the ideal or theoretical discharge which would occur  g
without losses.
Q
Cd =   p
QT H = h2 + h1  1  +
Coefficient of Velocity, Cv  2  2
The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the
ideal or theoretical velocity which would occur without any losses. WEIR
Weirs are overflow structures which are built across an open channel
v for measuring or controlling the flow of liquids. Weirs have been
Cv =
vT commonly used to measure the flow of water, but it is now being
Coefficient of Contraction, Cc adopted to measure the flow of other liquids. The formulas and
The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of the actual area of the principles that will be discussed on this chapter are general, i.e.
contracted section of the stream or jet to the area of the opening applicable to any type of liquid.
through which the fluid flows.
a
Cc =
A
Relationship between the Three Coefficient
C = Cc Cv
Orifice
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) with a closed perimeter
through which fluid flows. It is used primarily to measure or to control
the flow of fluid. The upstream face of the orifice may be rounded or
sharp. An orifice with prolonged side, such as a piece of pipe, having a
length of two or three times its diameter, is called a short tube. Longer
tubes such as culverts under embankments are usually treated as
orifice although they may also be treated as short pipes.
Rectangular Weir

2
Q = C 2 gL ( H + hv ) 2 − hv 2 
3 3

3  
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FLUID FLOW (UNSTEADY)
Q = Cw L ( H + hv ) 2 − hv 2 
3 3

 
Unsteady flow
3
The flow through orifice, weirs, or tubes is said to be steady only if the
Q = Cw LH 2 total head producing flow, H, is constant. The amount of fluid being
discharged for a time t can therefore be computed using the formula
Francis formula
Cw = 1.84 Vol = Qt
Contracted Rectangular Weir
The effective length of L of a contracted weir is given by:
L = L '− 0.1NH

Triangular Weir (V – Notch)

Note:
Qout = Qin : Steady flow
Qout < Qin : Unsteady flow – head will rise
Qout > Qin : Unsteady flow – head will fall

dV = (Qin − Qout ) dt

dV
dt =
Qin − Qout

4 As dh
Q=
3
C 2 gLH 2 dt =
15 Qin − Qout

h2
8  5 As dh
Q = C 2 g tan H 2 t=
15 2 Q − Qout
h1 in

For Orifice
 5 If Qin = 0:
Q = Cw tan H 2 h1
2 As dh
t=
For 90° Weir Qout
h2
5
Q = 1.4H 2

2 As
CIPOLLETTI WEIR t=  H1 − H2 
Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal weirs with side slope of 1 horizontal to CAo 2 g  
4 vertical. The additional area at the sides adds approximately enough If two tanks have uniform cross – sectional area,
effective width of the stream to offset the side contractions.
As1 As 2 2
t=  H1 − H2 
As1 + As 2 CAo 2 g  

For Weirs
h2
As dh
t=
Q − Qout
h1 in

If Qin = 0:
h1
As dh
t=
h2
Qout
3
Q = 1.859LH 2
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Uniform Flow Non – Uniform Flow
.

hL = S L  
v12/2g
hL = SL
v12/2g
2
v2 /2g EGL
Slope = S
v22/2g
d1

d1
 Channel Bed, Slope = So
d2
d2

SoL
L Channel bed,
Slope = So
L
Chezy Formula
First developed by the French engineer Antoine Chézy in 1769. The Total Specific Energy
quantity C is called the Chézy Coefficient, varies from about 30 m1/2/s
for small rough channels to 90 m1/2/s for large smooth channels. v2
E= +d
2g
v = c RS Velocity
v = 2g ( E − d )
Q = Ac RS Discharge
Q = A 2g ( E − d )
Values for C Froude Number
Kutter and Ganguillet
v
1 0.00155 FN =
+ 23 + gD
C= n S
n  0.00155 
1+  23 +  A
R S  D=
Manning Formula T
1 1 Froude Number: Upper Stage (Sub-Critical Depth)
C= R6 FN  1.0
n
Froude Number: Lower Stage (Super-Critical Depth)
1 2 1 FN  1.0
v = R 3S 2
n Froude Number: Critical Depth
Bazin Formula FN = 1.0
87 Critical Depth
C=
m Q2 A 3
1+ =
R g T
Froude Number – Rectangular Channel
Most Efficient Sections
Rectangular Section v
FN =
b = 2d gd
Critical depth – Rectangular Channel
d 2
R= dc = E
2 3
Trapezoidal Section Critical depth – Rectangular Channel
x = y1 + y2
q2
dc = 3
g
d
R= Velocity (Critical depth) – Rectangular Channel
2
Triangular Section
vc = gd
90o
Semi - Circular Section Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water.
r Flow at the jump changes from a supercritical to a subcritical stage
R= with an accompanying loss of kinetic energy.
2
A hydraulic jump is the only means by which the depth of flow can
change from less than critical to greater than critical to a uniform
channel.
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Dynamic Force
F x = Q ( v1 x − v2 x )

F y = Q ( v1 y − v2 y )

F = Fx 2 + F y 2

Dynamic Force
F x = Q '( v1 x − v2 x )

F y = Q '( v1 y − v2 y )

F = Fx 2 + F y 2

Qu
Q2  1 1  Q ' = Au =
A2 h2 − A1 h1 =  −  v'
g  A1 A2 
V. WEIGHT & VOLUME RELATIONSHIP
For Rectangular Channels
Soil is an assemblage of particles, and thus there are separate volumes
q2 d1d2 ( d1 + d2 ) of solid and void. The voids are occupied with air and water.
=
g 2

Dynamic Force VI. POROSITY & VOID RATIO RELATIONSHIP

Q
FD = Qv = v
g

Porosity:
Volume of void Vv Va + Vw
n= = =
Total volume V V

Void Ratio:
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Volume of void Vv Va + Vw XV. ZERO AIR VOIDS UNIT WEIGHT
e= = =
Volume of solid Vs Vs
Gs  w
 zav =
VII. WATER CONTENT 1 +  Gs
The water content for completely dry soil is 0% and normally up to
several tens of percentages for fully saturated soils. However, the XVI. AIR VOID RATIO
value may go up to more than 200% for highly open-structured clay
formed under a marine environment and for organic soils as unusual
cases. Avr = n (1 − s )
weight of water Ww
= =  100 XVII. CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
weight of solid Ws
 b Gs − 1
VIII. DEGREE OF SATURATION icr = =
The S value changes from 0% for completely dry soil conditions to w 1+ e
100% for fully saturated soil. The soils with 0 < S < 100% are called
partially saturated soils. Note that on many occasions, “saturated” XVIII. RELATIVE DENSITY OF GRANUALR
soils are interpreted as “fully saturated” without spelling out “fully.”
SOILS
volume of water Vw
S= =  100 emax − e
volume of void Vv Dr =  100
emax − emin
IX. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
1 1
−
unit weight of solid  s  min  d
GS = = Dr =  100
unit weight of water  w 1 1
−
 min  max
X. TOTAL UNIT WEIGHT
XIX. RELATIVE COMPACTION
total weight W Ws + Ww
= = =
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va  d( field )
R=  100
 d(max)
XI. DRY UNIT WEIGHT
XX. SHRINKAGE RATIO
weight of solid Ws
d = =
total volume V 1 m2
SR =
 W V2
Gs  w
d = XXI. DEGREE OF SATURATION
1+e

m 1
d = Gs =
1 SL
1+ −
Note that γd is not necessarily physical dry unit weight of soils: rather, SR 100
it is treated as a case by mathematically removing water while
maintaining constant total volume V without shrinkage, which takes XXII. SUITABILITY NUMBER
place during the physical drying process.

XII. MOIST UNIT WEIGHT (BULK UNIT WEIGHT) 3 1 1

S n = 1.7 2
+ 2+ 2
D50 D20 D10
(Gs + Se ) w
m = Suitability no. Rating as backfill
1+e
0 – 10 Excellent
10 – 20 Good
total weight W Ws + Ww 20 – 30 Fair
m = = = 30 – 50 Poor
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va
> 50 Unsuitable
XIII. SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT XXIII. SORTING COEFFICIENT

( Gs + e )  w D75
 sat = S0 =
1+e
D25
XIV. BUOYANT UNIT WEIGHT

 b =  sat −  w
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XXIV. ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
When clay particles are in a large amount of water, it is like a lean soup XXVI. TYPES OF LIMITS
(liquid) and, at a slightly drier state, it becomes like a soft butter
(plastic). At a further dried stage, it behaves like a cheese (semi-solid). LIQUID LIMIT
At a very dry stage, it is like a hard candy (solid). Cone Penetration – 20mm

The current standard liquid limit test (ASTM D 4318) uses a small
semi-spherical cup as seen below.

XXV. TYPES OF INDECES

PLASTICITY INDEX
PI = LL − PL
A portion of the cap is filled with a thoroughly mixed wet clay
LIQUIDITY INDEX specimen, and a groove is cut with a special grooving tool on the center
portion of the specimen. The cranking handle, which lifts and drops
 − PL the cup, is then rotated with two revolutions per second until the
LI =
LL − PL opening of the groove closes with 13 mm (1/2 in.) length. The number
of revolutions (blow counts) is recorded, and the water content at this
Characteristic of Soil stage is measured. Several trials with slightly different (usually a few
percentages) water content specimens are performed.
LI < 0 Brittle Solid
LI < 1 Plastic LL is then defined as the water content with 25 blows in the flow
LI > 1 Liquid curve.
CONSISTENCY INDEX PLASTIC LIMIT
LL − 
CI =
LL − PI
FLOW INDEX
1 − 2
FI =
N 
log  2 
 N1 
N1 = @ 15 blows ; N2 = @ 25 blows

TOUGHNESS INDEX
A PL test is run in a more primitive way (ASTM D 4318). A drier
PI specimen is rolled into a thread by human palms on a glass plate. PL is
TI = defined as the water content at which a rolled thread just crumbles
FI with 3 mm (1/8 in.) diameter, as shown above.
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SHRINKAGE LIMIT 1 1 1
S N = 1.7 + +
m − m2 v −v D502 D202 D 102
SL = 1  100 − 1 2 w  100
m2 m2
Silt &
Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand
ACTIVITY OF CLAY Clay
300 mm – 76.2 mm 76.2 – 4.75 –
PI < 0.075mm
A= 1,000 mm – 300 mm 4.75mm 0.075mm
0.002mm

Rate of the volume change potential

LL > 60 & PI > 35 Very High
LL (50-60) & PI (25-35) Medium
LL < 50 & PI < 25 Low

I. USDA (U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

> 2mm 2mm – 0.05mm 0.05mm – 0.002mm < 0.002mm

II. USCS (UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)

EFFECTIVE SIZE (D10)
This is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. It is used to measure the hydraulic
conductivity and drainage through the soil. III. AASHTO (AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
& TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS)
UNIFORM COEFFICIENT (Cu)
D60 Boulder Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Cu = 76.2 mm – 76.2 – 2– 0.075 – <
D10 1,000 mm 2mm 0.075mm 0.002mm 0.002mm

COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION / CURVATURE (Cc) Figure SM-45

D 2 Table 3.1: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
Cc = 30 General Granular materials
D60 D10 classification (35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
A-1 A-2
SORTING COEFFICIENT (So) Group
A-1-a A-1-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
D75 classification
So = Sieve analysis
D25 (percentage
passing)
SORTING COEFFICIENT (So) No. 10 50 max.
No. 40 30 max. 50 max. 51 min.
D75 No. 200 15 max. 25 max. 10 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max.
So =
D25 Characteristics
of fraction
passing
SUITABILITY NUMBER (SN)
No. 40
Liquid limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.
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Plasticity
6 max. NP 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min.
index
Usual types of Hydraulic Gradient:
Stone
significant
fragments,
Fine
Silty or clayey gravel and sand h
constituent sand i=
gravel, and sand L
materials
General Where:
Excellent to good L = distance between points A and B
subgrade rating
Darcy’s Law
Silt-clay materials
v = ki
General classification (more than 35% of total sample passing
No. 200) Where:
v = discharge velocity
A-7 k = hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of permeability)
Group classification A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5a
A-7-6b Seepage Velocity
Sieve analysis (percentage passing)
v
No. 10 vs =
No. 40 n
No. 200 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. Where:
Characteristics of fraction passing v = discharge velocity
No. 40 n = porosity
Liquid limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.
Plasticity index 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min. Discharge
Usual types of significant
Silty soils Clayey soils q = kiA
constituent materials
General subgrade rating Fair to poor Where:
a For A-7-5, PI ≤ LL – 30 k = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
b For A-7-6, PI > LL - 30
i = hydraulic gradient
A = cross -sectional area of the soil
GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10)
II. CONSTANT – HEAD TEST
I. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

u v2
h= + +z
w 2g

Where:
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water

VL
k=
Aht
Where:
v = volume collected in a given t
Note: Velocity can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and L = length of the soil sample
the total head at any point can be adequately represented by: A = cross – sectional area of the soil sample
h = constant head
t = time of collection
u
h= +z
w

Total Head loss:

h = hA − hB
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III. FALLING – HEAD TEST Confined Aquifer

r 
Q ln  1 
k=  r2 
aL  h1  2 t ( h1 − h2 )
k= ln  
At  h2  Where:
Where: Q = discharge
a = cross – sectional area of stand pipe r1 = farthest observation
L = length of the soil specimen r2 = nearest observation
A = cross – sectional area of soil sample h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
t = time of collection h2 = height of water at the nearest observation
h1 = initial head at t = 0 t = thickness of aquifer
h2 = final head at t = time of collection
Transmissivity of Aquifer
IV. PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM r 
WELLS Q ln  1 
T=  r2 
Unconfined Aquifer 2 ( z2 − z1 )

T = kb
Where:
Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
z1 = drawdown at the farthest observation
z2 = drawdown at the nearest observation
b = thickness of aquifer
k = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)

r 
Q ln  1 
k=  r2 
(
 h1 − h22
2
)
Where:
Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
h2 = height of water at the nearest observation
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V. EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN
STRATIFIED SOIL
Horizontal Equivalent

1
kH ( eq ) = ( kH 1 H1 + kH 2H2 + kH 3H3 + + kHn Hn )
H
Vertical Equivalent

XXVIII. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH

UPWARD SEEPAGE

H
kV ( eq ) =
 H1   H2   H3  H 
 + + + + n 
 kV 1   kV 2   kV 3   kVn 
XXVII. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
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XXX. CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS

XXIX. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH DOWNWARD

SEEPAGE

Flow Nets
Flow Nets
The flow of water through a soil can be represented graphically by a flow
net, a form of curvilinear net made up of a set of flow lines intersected by
a set of equipotential lines.

Flow lines
The paths which water particles follow during seepage are known as flow
lines. Water flows from points of high to points of low head and makes
smooth curves when changing direction. Hence, we can draw, by hand or
by computer, a series of smooth curves representing the paths followed
by moving water particles.

Equipotential lines
As the water moves along the flow line it experiences a continuous loss of
head. If we can obtain the head causing flow at points along a flow line,
then by joining up points of equal potential we obtain a second set of lines
known as equipotential lines.

XXXI. FOR ISOTROPIC SOILS

 Nf 
q = k h 
 Nd 
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability / hydraulic conductivity
Δh = total head loss
Nf = number of flow lines
Nd = number of equipotential lines/ potential drop lines

XXXII. FOR NON – ISOTROPIC SOILS

 Nf 
q = k x k y h 
 Nd 
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability / hydraulic conductivity
Δh = total head loss
Nf = number of flow lines
Nd = number of equipotential lines/ potential drop lines
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XXXIII. BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT  

LOADS  
q 2/  q
z =  2
 = 2 Iz
z z
x  
2

 1 +    
 z  
  

Assumptions:
1. The soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi –
infinite.
2. The soil is weightless.
3. The load is a point load acting on the surface.

 
 
3Q  1  Q
z =   = 2 IB XXXVI. BASIC SETTLEMENT FORMULA
2 z 2  
5

r 
2 2  z

 1 +    
 z  
  

Where:
the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P
r = below the surface and the vertical axis through the
point load Q.
z = The vertical depth of point P from the surface.
3 1
Boussinesq stress coefficient I B =
2 
5
IB =
r  
2 2

1 +   
  z  
XXXIV. WESTERGAARD’S FORMULA FOR
POINT LOADS

 
 
Q  1  Q
z = 2   = 2 Iw
z  
3

r 
2 2  z

 1 + 2   
  z   
 
H ( eo − ec ) e
H = =H
1 + eo 1 + eo
Where:
the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P
r = below the surface and the vertical axis through the Where:
point load Q. H = thickness of stratum
z = The vertical depth of point P from the surface. eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
ec = void ratio after the vertical load is applied
1 1
Westergaard stress coefficient Iw = XXXVII. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

3
IB =
r  
2 2

SETTLEMENT OF NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED FINE –

1 + 2   GRAINED SOILS
  z  

XXXV. LINE LOADS Cc  P + P 

H = H log  o 
1 + eo  Po 
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
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Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio XLI. GENERAL SHEAR FAILURE
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress
ΔP = stress increase

XXXVIII. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT OF OVER CONSOLIDATED FINE –
GRAINED SOILS
PO + ΔP < PC
Cs  P + P 
H = H log  o 
1 + eo  Po  Rectangular footing
Where:  0.3B   0.2B 
Cs = swell index qu = cNc 1 +  + qNq + 0.5 BN 1 −
 L   L 
PO + ΔP > PC Strip footing
Cs P  C  P + P  qu = cNc + qNq + 0.5 BN
H = H log  c  + H c log  o 
1 + eo 1 + eo Square footing
 Po   Pc 
qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4 BN
Pc Circular footing
OCR =
Po qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3 BN
Where:
Cs = swell index XLII. LOCAL SHEAR FAILURE
Pc = pre – consolidation pressure

XXXIX. INDEX
Compression Index
Cc = 0.009( LL − 10)

e1 − e2
Cc =
P  Rectangular footing
log  2 
 P1   0.3B   0.2B 
qu = c ' Nc ' 1 +  + qNq '+ 0.5 BN ' 1 −
Swell Index  L   L 
Strip footing
1 1
C s = Cc to Cc qu = c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.5 BN '
5 10
Square footing
XL. TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION qu = 1.3c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.4 BN '
Circular footing
H 2
t = Tv dr qu = 1.3c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.3 BN '
Cv
Where:
U = 0 to 60% c = cohesion of the soil
  U% 
2 q = overburden pressure (effective pressure)
Tv = γ = unit weight of the soil
4  100  B = width, diameter
U > 60% Nc = bearing capacity factor due to cohesion
Nq = bearing capacity factor due to overburden pressure
Tv = 1.781 − 0.933log (100 − U % ) Nγ = bearing capacity factor due to dimension

Average Degree of Consolidation

H
U=
Hmax
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
av
mv =
1 + eave

e + eo
eave =
2
Where:
eo = initial void ratio
e = final void ratio
ΔP = rise in pressure
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XLIII. BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS (GENERAL SHEAR) CASE 2

CASE 3

XLIV. BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS (LOCAL SHEAR)

Case 1
q =  ( Df − D) +  'D
Case 2
q =  Df
Case 3: D ≤ B
 B =  D +  '( B − D )
Case 3: D > B
 =

XLVI. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

The direct shear test is simple to perform, but it has some inherent
shortcomings. The reliability of the results may be questioned because
the soil is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane but is forced to
fail along the plane of split of the shear box. Also, the shear stress
distribution over the shear surface of the specimen is not uniform.
XLV. EFFECTS OF GROUND WATER TABLE Despite these shortcomings, the direct shear test is the simplest and
most economical for a dry or Saturated sandy soil.
CASE 1

Normal stress
P
=
A
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Shear stress
F
=
A
(F = SHEAR FORCE)

Area of the soil sample considering shortening of length

Ao
A=
1−
Strain

=
L
XLVII. TRI – AXIAL STRESS (NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATED SOIL)

L. COEFFICIENT OF AT REST EARTH (NORMALLY

CONSOLIDATED)

K o = 1 − sin ( )

LI. COEFFICIENT OF AT REST EARTH (OVER

CONSOLIDATED)

K o = (1 − sin ( ) ) OCR

F = Area of the
triangle
 = 16.181

3.5
XLVIII. TRI – AXIAL TEST (COHESIVE SOIL) m F1 = 31.725
kN
6m 16.181(3.5) =
56.633 Ka(56.633) = 18.13

F2 = 22.66 kN 11/3
b = 10.13
2.5 F3 = 63.45 kN 5/3
m pw = 9.81(2.5)
56.633
5/6
+ 10.13(2.5) 24.525
= Ka(81.961) = 26.236 neutral stress
81.961
Effective stress, 26.236 + 24.525 = 50.761
pe = h
Lateral stress, Ka  pe
LII. RANKINE’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (HORIZONTAL
XLIX. CONSOLIDATED DRAINED TEST BACKFILL)

1 − sin ( )
Ka =
1 + sin ( )

LIII. RANKINE’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (HORIZONTAL

BACKFILL)

1 + sin ( )
Kp =
1 − sin ( )
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LIV. RANKINE’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED

BACKFILL)

cos − cos2  − cos2 

K a = cos
cos + cos2  − cos2 

LV. RANKINE’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED

BACKFILL)
A. Factor of safety against sliding (No Pore Water pressure)
cos + cos  − cos 
2 2
K a = cos c tan
cos − cos2  − cos2  F .S . = +
 H cos2  tan  tan 
LVI. COULOMB’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED B. Factor of safety against sliding (Pore Water pressure)
BACKFILL)
c  'tan
sin2 (  +  ) F .S . = +
Ka =  sat H cos2  tan  tan 
2
 sin ( +  ) sin ( −  ) 
sin  sin (  −  ) 1 +
2
 C. Maximum height of the Slope for which Critical Equilibrium
 sin (  −  ) sin ( +  )  occurs

LVII. COULOMB’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED c
Hcr =
BACKFILL)  cos2  ( tan  − tan )

sin2 (  +  ) LX. INFINTE SLOPE FOR SANDS

Kp = 2
 sin ( +  ) sin ( +  )  A. Factor of safety without seepage
sin2  sin (  −  ) 1 − 
 sin (  +  ) sin ( +  ) 
 tan 
F .S . =
LVIII. PECK’S EMPIRCAL PRESSURE DIAGRAM tan 

B. Factor of safety with partial seepage

 h  tan
F .S . =  1 − w 
  sat H  tan 
C. Factor of safety with full seepage

  '  tan
F .S . =  
  sat  tan 

LXI. FINITE SLOPE

Stability Number
Cd
m=
H

Critical height slope

LIX. INFINITE SLOPE FOR CLAYS
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C
H cr =
m

LXII. PILES ON CLAY

A. Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles

qb = cNc Atip

B. Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Piles

q f = cL P

LXIII. CAPACITY OF GOUP PILES

Efficiency of Group Piles
2 ( m + n − 2 ) S + 4D
E=
 Dmn