ENGINEERING FORMULAS FOR DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY & SURFACE TENSION

HYDRAULICS & GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILATION OF FORMULAS – GILLESANIA ENGINEERING REVIEW & TRAINING CENTER

I. DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY Note: A large value of k indicates that a momentous change in pressure
is needed to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. with a large k is essentially incompressible. This is typical for liquids and
explains why liquids are usually considered to be incompressible.
m Note: Small density changes in liquids can still cause interesting
=
V phenomena in piping systems such as the water hammer—
characterized by a sound that resembles the sound produced when a
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume, which is defined as pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when a liquid in a piping network
volume per unit mass. encounters an abrupt flow restriction (such as a closing valve) and is
locally compressed.
1 m
= =
Water Hammer is the resulting shock cause by a sudden decrease in
 V
the velocity of fluid.
Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density
of a well-known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative For RIGID PIPES
density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the k
density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually c=
water at 4°C, for which ρwater = 1000 kg/m3). That is, 
 For NON – RIGID PIPES

SG =
water k
c=
 k d 
 1 +
 gas  E  t 
SG =
air
The time for the pressure wave to travel from A to B and back again:
The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight or
weight density. 2L
T=
c
s = g
Instantaneous Closure (tc = 0)
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the The resulting shock due to instantaneous closure is given by:
gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state, expressed as Ph = cv
P = RT Rapid Closure (tc < 2L/c)

It is physically impossible for a valve to be closed instantaneously (tc
where P is the absolute pressure, T is the thermodynamic = 0). For a rapid closure (tc < 2L/c) the maximum pressure near the
(absolute) temperature, ρ is the density, and R is the gas valve would still be
constant. Ph = cv
The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, and
the temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, designated by K. Slow Closure (tc > 2L/c)
For slow closure, the excess pressure produced decreases uniformly
from the valve at the valve to zero at the intake. The maximum water-
( )
T = T oC + 273.15 hammer pressure developed is given approximately by:
In the English system, it is the Rankine scale, and the temperature unit 2Lv 
on this scale is the rankine, R. Ph =
tc
( )
T = T oF + 459.67 III. VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a property that represents the internal resistance of
Note: It is customary practice to round the constants 273.15 and 459.67 a fluid to motion or the “fluidity”.
to 273 and 460, respectively, but we do not encourage this practice.
Kinematic viscosity “𝜈” (Nu) is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of
The properties of an ideal gas at two different states are related to the fluid, μ, to its mass density, ρ.
each other and constant temperature:

P1V1 = P2V2 =

II. COMPRESSIBILITY & SPEED OF SOUND
Where:
Bulk modulus of Compressibility is defined by this equation. μ = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec.
ρ = density in kg/m3
P Common units:
k m2/s or stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/sec = 0.0001 m2/sec)
V
V
IV. SURFACE TENSION & CAPILLARY EFFECT
The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure
corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a
fluid while the temperature remains constant. fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces and is known as
surface tension.
Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Surface tension is the reason that insects can sit on water and a Pvac = Patm − Pabs
needle is able to float on it.
Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area
per unit volume. Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation is h, to
lie in the ends of an elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a
Pressure inside a Droplet of liquid and a length of L. Since prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must
be in equilibrium.
4
p=
d
Where:
σ = surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of the droplet in m
p = gage pressure in Pa
Capillarity (Capillary
action) is the name
given to the behavior of
the liquid in a thin-bore
tube. The rise or fall on a
fluid in a capillary tube P 2 −P1 =  h
is caused by surface
tension and depends in
the relative magnitudes
of the cohesion of the
liquid and the adhesion
of the liquid to the walls
of the containing vessel.
4 cos
h=
d
For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle Ɵ is 0°.
Hence the formula becomes
4
h=
d
Note: Under hydrostatic conditions, the pressure is the same at all points
Where: on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided
h = capillary rise or depression in m that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.
γ = unit weight in N/m3
d = diameter of the tube in m
σ = surface tension in Pa
PRESSURE HEAD
PRESSURE
Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. unit weight γ that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
F P
P= h=
A 
Common units: To CONVERT Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
SGA
h B = hA
ABSOLUTE & GAGE PRESSURES SGB
Gage pressures (Relative Pressures) are pressures above or below
the atmosphere and can be measured by pressure gauges or TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES
manometers.
If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s horizontal surface submerged in a liquid or a plane surface inside a gas
surface from the weight of the air above it. chamber, the total hydrostatic force (total pressure) is given by:
Common units: F = pA
1 atm = 14.7 psi = 760 mmHg = 101.325 kPa where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area.
Vacuum pressures are pressures below the atmospheric pressure. In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the
total pressure can be found by the following formula:
The pressure above absolute zero (vacuum)
Pabs = Pgage + Patm
b h bh3 hb3
x= y= Ix = Iy =
2 2 12 12
Triangle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax
b+c h bh3
x= y= Ix =
3 3 36
Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax
r4  d4
x =r y =r Ix = =
4 64
Semi – Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax Inertiay

Eq. 1
F =  hA
4r
I x = 0.11r 4 r4
x =r y= Iy =
Since γℎ̅ is the unit pressure at the centroid of the plane area, p cg, the 3 8
formula may also be expressed as:
Eq. 2
F = pcg A DAMS
NOTE: Dams are structures that block the flow of a rover, stream, or other
waterway.
Eq. 1 is convenient to use if the plane is submerged in a single
liquid and without gage pressure at the surface of the liquid. Purpose of a Dam
Dams are built for the following purpose:
However, if the plane is submerged under layers of different 1. Irrigation and drinking water
liquids of if the gage pressure at the surface is not zero. Eq. 2 is 2. Power Supply (Hydroelectric)
easier to apply. 3. Navigation
4. Flood Control
Location of F: 5. Multi – Purpose
Ig Types of Dams
e=
AY a. Gravity Dams use only the force of the gravity to resist water
pressure.
Values of 𝑌̅: b. Embankment Dams is a gravity dam formed out of loose rock,
earth, or a combination of these materials.
If the plane is Inclined at a certain angle Ɵ with respect to horizontal c. Arch dams are concrete or masonry structures that curve
plane. upstream into a reservoir.
d. Buttress dam consists of a wall, or face, supported by several
h buttresses on the downstream side.
Y=
sin Types of Dams
- A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is
raised on its upstream side.
- These forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation
If the plane is vertical. and overturn it about its downstream edge or toe.
Y =h - These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam
and gravitational forces which causes a moment opposite to the
overturning moment.
PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLANE SECTIONS
Rectangle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax Inertiay

Figure 1
Note:
In any given direction, therefore, the horizontal force on any surface
equals the force on the projection of that surface on a vertical plane
perpendicular to the given direction. The line of action of the
horizontal force on the curved surface is the same as that of the
force on the vertical projection.
Vertical component of hydrostatic force:
The vertical component of the force on a curved surface may be

determined by considering the fluid enclosed by the curved surface
and vertical projection lines extending to the free surface. Thus
FV =  liqVproj
Notable formulas to remember:
where Vproj is the volume of the liquid between the free surface liquid
Location of Ry (𝒙
̅): and solid curved surface.
RM − OM
x= The magnitude of the resultant is obtained from the equation:
Ry
Factors of Safety
FR = FH 2 + FV 2
Factors of Safety against sliding: BUOYANCY

R y
FS s = Buoyancy (also known as the buoyant force) is the force exerted on an
Rx object that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid.
- The symbol for the magnitude of buoyancy is BF or FB
Factors of Safety against overturning: - As a vector it must be stated with both magnitude and direction.
• Buoyancy acts upward for the kind of situations encountered
RM in everyday experience.
FS o =
OM - As with other forces, the SI unit of buoyancy is the newton [N].
Foundation Pressures Archimedes' Principle
For e ≤ B/6 The magnitude of the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight
of the fluid it displaces.
Ry  6e 
q=−  1 
B B BF =  liqVdisplaced
For e > B/6 The factors that affect buoyancy are:

2R y a. the density of the fluid,
q= b. the volume of the fluid displaced, and
3x c. the local acceleration due to gravity.
TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVE SURFACES The buoyant force is not affected by:
a. the mass of the immersed object or
On a curved surface the forces pA on individual elements differ in b. the density of the immersed object.
direction, so a simple summation of them may not be made. Buoyancy vs. Density
Instead, the resultant forces in certain directions may be determined, Densities BF > Wobject BF = Wobject BF < Wobject
and these forces may then be combined vectorially. It is simplest to object rises float on surface
calculate horizontal and vertical components of the total force.
ρobject < ρfluid (wholly (partly
immersed) immersed)
Horizontal component of hydrostatic force: neutral
buoyancy
Any curved surface may be projected on to a vertical plane. Take, for ρobject = ρfluid (wholly
example, the curved surface illustrated in Fig. 1. immersed)
ρobject > ρfluid object sinks
FH = pcg AV .P
Stability of floating bodies

Inclined Motion
Consider a mass of fluid being accelerated upwards at an inclination α
with the horizontal so that ax = a cos α and ay = a sin α.
aH
tan =
g  aV
Figure 2: Upright position Note: Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for downward
motion.
Initial value of MBo
Vertical Motion
I Consider a mass of fluid accelerated upwards or downwards with an
MBo =
Vdisplaced acceleration of a. The forces acting at a point h below the liquid surface
are the weight of the liquid above the point, γV, the inertia force, Ma,
and the pressure force F = pA.
 a
p =  1  
 g
Note: Use (+) for upward motion and (-) for downward motion.
Note: a is positive for acceleration and a is negative for deceleration
Rotation (Rotating Vessels)
Notable formulas for rotating vessel.

Figure 3: Stable Position
Slope of the paraboloid
2 x
tan =
g
Where:
ω = speed of rotation (radian per second)
x = distance from the center of rotation to point of analysis (Radius)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Height of the paraboloid

2 x2
y=
Figure 4: Unstable Position 2g
Righting Moment and Overturning Moment Where:
RM = W ( x ) ω = speed of rotation (radian per second)
x = distance from the center of rotation to point of analysis (Radius)
OM = W ( x ) g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Squared Property of Parabola

Metacentric Height
MG = MBo  GBo x 1 2 x 22
=
y1 y2
Use (-) if G is above Bo
Use (+) if G is below Bo Volume of Paraboloid of Revolution
Value of MBo 1
v =  r 2h
B2  tan2   2
MBo = 1 + 
12D  2  Where:
r = radius of the paraboloid
h = height of the paraboloid
RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION (MOVING VESSEL)
Horizontal Motion FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
Consider a mass of fluid moving with a linear acceleration a.
Considering a particle in the surface, the forces acting are the weight DISCHARGE (FLOW RATE: Q)
W = Mg and the fictitious inertia force (reversed effective force, REF) Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section
which is equal to Ma, and the reaction N which must be normal to the per unit of time.
surface.
Volume flow rate (Flow rate)
a Q = Av
tan =
g Mass flow rate
M = Q
Note: The surface and all planes of equal hydrostatic pressure just be
incline at this angle Ɵ with the horizontal.
Weight flow rate

Wf =  Q v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2
Where: 2g  2g 
Q = discharge in m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow
v = mean velocity of flow Energy Equation w/ PUMP
ρ = mass density
γ = weight density E1 + HA = E2
ELEVATION & HEAD
With HEAD LOST
The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the
potential energy. E1 + HA − HL1−2 = E2
Kinetic energy (Velocity Head)

The ability of the fluid mass to do work by its velocity. v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 + HA = 2 + 2 + z2
2g  2g 
v2
K .E . =
2g With HEAD LOST
v12 P1 v2 P
Potential energy (Elevation Head) + + z1 + HA − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2
The energy possessed by the fluid by its position or elevation with 2g  2g 
respect to a datum plane.
Pout = Q HA
H=z
Potential energy (Pressure Head) Energy Equation w/ TURBINE
P E1 − HE = E2
h=

With HEAD LOST
TOTAL FLOW ENERGY (E) E1 − HE − HL1−2 = E2
The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and
the potential energies. It can be summarized as:
v12 P1 v2 P
+ + z1 − HE = 2 + 2 + z2
E = K .E + P.E 2g  2g 
v2 P With HEAD LOST

E= + +z v12 P1 v2 P
2g  + + z1 − HE − HL1−2 = 2 + 2 + z2
2g  2g 
POWER & EFFICIENCY
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Pin = Q HE
Power
P = Q E FLUID MEASUREMENT (STEADY FLOW)
Efficiency DEVICE COEFFICIENTS

Pout Coefficient of Discharge, C or Cd
=  100 The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual discharge through
Pin
the device to the ideal or theoretical discharge which would occur
Note: without losses.
1 hp = 749 Watts
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM Q

Cd =
The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the QT
principles of conservation of energy.
E1 + Eadded − E lost /extraccted = E2
Energy Equation w/o HEAD LOST Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the
E1 = E 2 ideal or theoretical velocity which would occur without any losses.
v
v12 P1 v2 P Cv =
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 vT
2g  2g 
Coefficient of Contraction, Cc
Energy Equation w/ HEAD LOST The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of the actual area of the
contracted section of the stream or jet to the area of the opening
E1 − HL1−2 = E2 through which the fluid flows.

WEIR
a
Cc = Weirs are overflow structures which are built across an open channel
A for measuring or controlling the flow of liquids. Weirs have been
commonly used to measure the flow of water, but it is now being
Relationship between the Three Coefficient adopted to measure the flow of other liquids. The formulas and
principles that will be discussed on this chapter are general, i.e.
applicable to any type of liquid.
C = Cc Cv
Orifice
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) with a closed perimeter
through which fluid flows. It is used primarily to measure or to control
the flow of fluid. The upstream face of the orifice may be rounded or
sharp. An orifice with prolonged side, such as a piece of pipe, having a
length of two or three times its diameter, is called a short tube. Longer
tubes such as culverts under embankments are usually treated as
orifice although they may also be treated as short pipes.
Rectangular Weir
2
Q = C 2 gL ( H + hv ) 2 − hv 2 
3 3
Total Head 3  
v A2 pA pB
H = h+ + −
Q = Cw L ( H + hv ) 2 − hv 2 
3 3
2g    
H = Hupstream − Hdownstream 3
Q = Cw LH 2
Theoretical velocity
Francis formula
vt = 2gH Cw = 1.84
Contracted Rectangular Weir
Actual velocity The effective length of L of a contracted weir is given by:
v = Cv 2gH L = L '− 0.1NH
Theoretical discharge
Qt = A 2gH
Actual discharge
Q = Cd A 2gH
Values of H for various conditions

H =h
Triangular Weir (V – Notch)
p
H = h+

 a
H = h 1  
 g
  p
H = h2 + h1  1  +
 2  2

4 3
h2
As dh
Q= C 2 gLH 2 t=
15 Q − Qout
h1 in
8  5 For Orifice
Q= C 2 g tan H 2
15 2
If Qin = 0:
h1
 As dh
Q = Cw tan H
5
2 t=
2 h2
Qout
For 90° Weir 2 As

Q = 1.4H
5
t=  H1 − H 2 
CAo 2 g  
2
CIPOLLETTI WEIR
Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal weirs with side slope of 1 horizontal to If two tanks have uniform cross – sectional area,
4 vertical. The additional area at the sides adds approximately enough As1 As 2 2
effective width of the stream to offset the side contractions. t=  H1 − H 2 
As1 + As 2 CAo 2 g  
For Weirs
h2
As dh
t=
Q − Qout
h1 in
If Qin = 0:
h1
As dh
t=
h2
Qout
3
Q = 1.859LH 2
Uniform Flow
FLUID FLOW (UNSTEADY)
hL = S L
Unsteady flow v12/2g
The flow through orifice, weirs, or tubes is said to be steady only if the
total head producing flow, H, is constant. The amount of fluid being
discharged for a time t can therefore be computed using the formula v22/2g
Vol = Qt d1
 Channel Bed, Slope = So

d2
Chezy Formula
First developed by the French engineer Antoine Chézy in 1769. The
quantity C is called the Chézy Coefficient, varies from about 30 m1/2/s
for small rough channels to 90 m1/2/s for large smooth channels.
v = c RS
Note:
Qout = Qin : Steady flow
Qout < Qin : Unsteady flow – head will rise Q = Ac RS
Qout > Qin : Unsteady flow – head will fall
Values for C
dV = (Qin − Qout ) dt
Kutter and Ganguillet
dV 1 0.00155
dt = + 23 +
Qin − Qout C= n S
n  0.00155 
1+  23 + 
R S 
As dh
dt =
Qin − Qout Manning Formula

1 1 v
C= R6 FN =
n gD
1 2 1 A
v = R 3S 2 D=
n T
Bazin Formula
Froude Number: Upper Stage (Sub-Critical Depth)
87 FN  1.0
C=
m
1+
R Froude Number: Lower Stage (Super-Critical Depth)
FN  1.0
Most Efficient Sections
Froude Number: Critical Depth
Rectangular Section
b = 2d
FN = 1.0
Critical Depth
d
R= Q2 A 3
2 =
g T
Trapezoidal Section
x = y1 + y2 Froude Number – Rectangular Channel
v
FN =
d gd
R=
2
Critical depth – Rectangular Channel
Triangular Section 2
90o dc = E
3
Semi - Circular Section Critical depth – Rectangular Channel

r
R= q2
2 dc = 3
g
Non – Uniform Flow
. Velocity (Critical depth) – Rectangular Channel
vc = gd
 
hL = SL Hydraulic Jump
v12/2g Hydraulic jump is an abrupt increase in depth of rapidly flowing water.
EGL
Slope = S
Flow at the jump changes from a supercritical to a subcritical stage
v22/2g with an accompanying loss of kinetic energy.
A hydraulic jump is the only means by which the depth of flow can
d1
change from less than critical to greater than critical to a uniform
channel.
d2
SoL
Channel bed,
Slope = So
L
Total Specific Energy

v2
E= +d
2g
Velocity
v = 2g ( E − d )
Discharge
Q = A 2g ( E − d )
Froude Number

Dynamic Force
F x = Q '(v1x − v2x )
Q2  1 1  F y = Q '( v1 y − v2 y )
A2 h2 − A1 h1 =  − 
g  A1 A2 
For Rectangular Channels F = Fx 2 + Fy2
q2 d1d2 ( d1 + d2 )
= Qu
g 2 Q ' = Au =
v'
V. WEIGHT & VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Soil is an assemblage of particles, and thus there are separate volumes
of solid and void. The voids are occupied with air and water.
Dynamic Force
Q
FD = Qv = v
g
VI. POROSITY & VOID RATIO RELATIONSHIP
Dynamic Force
F x = Q (v1x − v2x )
F y = Q ( v1 y − v2 y ) Porosity:
Volume of void Vv Va + Vw
n= = =
Total volume V V
F = Fx 2 + Fy2
Void Ratio:
Volume of void Vv Va + Vw
e= = =
Volume of solid Vs Vs
VII. WATER CONTENT

The water content for completely dry soil is 0% and normally up to
several tens of percentages for fully saturated soils. However, the
value may go up to more than 200% for highly open-structured clay

formed under a marine environment and for organic soils as unusual XV. ZERO AIR VOIDS UNIT WEIGHT
cases.
Gs  w
weight of water Ww  zav =
= =  100 1 +  Gs
weight of solid Ws
XVI. AIR VOID RATIO
VIII. DEGREE OF SATURATION
The S value changes from 0% for completely dry soil conditions to Avr = n(1 − s )
100% for fully saturated soil. The soils with 0 < S < 100% are called
partially saturated soils. Note that on many occasions, “saturated” XVII. CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
soils are interpreted as “fully saturated” without spelling out “fully.”
 b Gs − 1
volume of water Vw icr = =
S= =  100 w 1+ e
volume of void Vv
XVIII. RELATIVE DENSITY OF GRANUALR
IX. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SOILS
unit weight of solid  s
GS = = emax − e
unit weight of water  w Dr =  100
emax − emin
1 1
−
 min  d
Dr =  100
X. TOTAL UNIT WEIGHT 1 1
−
 min  max
total weight W Ws + Ww
= = =
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va XIX. RELATIVE COMPACTION
XI. DRY UNIT WEIGHT  d( field )

R=  100
 d(max)
weight of solid Ws
d = =
total volume V XX. SHRINKAGE RATIO
Gs  w 1 m2
d = SR =
1+e  W V2
XXI. DEGREE OF SATURATION


d = m
1+ 1
Gs =
Note that γd is not necessarily physical dry unit weight of soils: rather, 1 SL
−
it is treated as a case by mathematically removing water while SR 100
maintaining constant total volume V without shrinkage, which takes
place during the physical drying process. XXII. SUITABILITY NUMBER
XII. MOIST UNIT WEIGHT (BULK UNIT WEIGHT)
3 1 1
Sn = 1.7 + 2+ 2
(Gs + Se ) w 2
D50 D20 D10
m =
1+e
Suitability no. Rating as backfill
0 – 10 Excellent
total weight W Ws + Ww
m = = = 10 – 20 Good
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va 20 – 30 Fair
30 – 50 Poor
XIII. SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT > 50 Unsuitable
XXIII. SORTING COEFFICIENT

(Gs + e ) w
 sat =
1+e D75
S0 =
XIV. BUOYANT UNIT WEIGHT D25
 b =  sat −  w XXIV. ATTERBERG’S LIMITS

When clay particles are in a large amount of water, it is like a lean soup
PI
(liquid) and, at a slightly drier state, it becomes like a soft butter TI =
(plastic). At a further dried stage, it behaves like a cheese (semi-solid). FI
At a very dry stage, it is like a hard candy (solid).
XXVI. TYPES OF LIMITS
LIQUID LIMIT
Cone Penetration – 20mm
The current standard liquid limit test (ASTM D 4318) uses a small
semi-spherical cup as seen below.
XXV. TYPES OF INDECES

PLASTICITY INDEX A portion of the cap is filled with a thoroughly mixed wet clay
PI = LL − PL specimen, and a groove is cut with a special grooving tool on the center
portion of the specimen. The cranking handle, which lifts and drops
LIQUIDITY INDEX the cup, is then rotated with two revolutions per second until the
opening of the groove closes with 13 mm (1/2 in.) length. The number
 − PL of revolutions (blow counts) is recorded, and the water content at this
LI =
LL − PL stage is measured. Several trials with slightly different (usually a few
percentages) water content specimens are performed.
Characteristic of Soil
LI < 0 Brittle Solid LL is then defined as the water content with 25 blows in the flow
LI < 1 Plastic curve.
LI > 1 Liquid
PLASTIC LIMIT
CONSISTENCY INDEX
LL − 
CI =
LL − PI
FLOW INDEX
1 − 2
FI =
N 
log  2 
 N1 
N1 = @ 15 blows ; N2 = @ 25 blows
TOUGHNESS INDEX A PL test is run in a more primitive way (ASTM D 4318). A drier
specimen is rolled into a thread by human palms on a glass plate. PL is
defined as the water content at which a rolled thread just crumbles
with 3 mm (1/8 in.) diameter, as shown above. 1 1 1
S N = 1.7 + 2+
D50 D20 D 102
2
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
m1 − m2 v −v Silt &
SL =  100 − 1 2 w  100 Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand
m2 m2 Clay
300 mm – 76.2 mm 76.2 – 4.75 –
< 0.075mm
ACTIVITY OF CLAY 1,000 mm – 300 mm 4.75mm 0.075mm
PI
A=
0.002mm
Rate of the volume change potential

LL > 60 & PI > 35 Very High
LL (50-60) & PI (25-35) Medium
LL < 50 & PI < 25 Low
I. USDA (U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE)
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

> 2mm 2mm – 0.05mm 0.05mm – 0.002mm < 0.002mm
II. USCS (UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)

EFFECTIVE SIZE (D10) III. AASHTO (AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
This is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. It is used to measure the hydraulic & TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS)
conductivity and drainage through the soil.
Boulder Gravel Sand Silt Clay
UNIFORM COEFFICIENT (Cu) 76.2 mm – 76.2 – 2– 0.075 – <
1,000 mm 2mm 0.075mm 0.002mm 0.002mm
D60
Cu =
D10 Figure SM-45
Table 3.1: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION / CURVATURE (Cc) General Granular materials
classification (35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
D302
Cc = A-1 A-2
D60 D10 Group
A-1-a A-1-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
classification
SORTING COEFFICIENT (So) Sieve analysis
(percentage
D75
So = passing)
D25 No. 10 50 max.
No. 40 30 max. 50 max. 51 min.
SORTING COEFFICIENT (So) No. 200 15 max. 25 max. 10 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max.
Characteristics
D75 of fraction
So =
D25 passing
No. 40
SUITABILITY NUMBER (SN) Liquid limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.

Plasticity
6 max. NP 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min. h
index i=
Usual types of
Stone
L
significant Fine
fragments, Silty or clayey gravel and sand Where:
constituent sand
gravel, and sand L = distance between points A and B
materials
General
Excellent to good Darcy’s Law
subgrade rating
v = ki
Silt-clay materials
General classification (more than 35% of total sample passing Where:
No. 200) v = discharge velocity
k = hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of permeability)
A-7
Group classification A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5a Seepage Velocity
A-7-6b
Sieve analysis (percentage passing) v
vs =
No. 10 n
No. 40
No. 200 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. Where:
Characteristics of fraction passing v = discharge velocity
No. 40 n = porosity
Liquid limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.
Plasticity index 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min. Discharge
Usual types of significant
Silty soils Clayey soils q = kiA
constituent materials
General subgrade rating Fair to poor
a For A-7-5, PI ≤ LL – 30 Where:
b For A-7-6, PI > LL - 30
k = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
i = hydraulic gradient
GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10) A = cross -sectional area of the soil
I. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION II. CONSTANT – HEAD TEST
u v2
h= + +z
w 2g
Where:
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water
VL
k=
Aht
Note: Velocity can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and Where:
the total head at any point can be adequately represented by: v = volume collected in a given t
L = length of the soil sample
A = cross – sectional area of the soil sample
u
h= +z h = constant head
w t = time of collection
Total Head loss: III. FALLING – HEAD TEST

h = hA − hB
Hydraulic Gradient:
r 
Q ln  1 
aL  h   r2 
k = ln  1  k=
At  h2  2 t ( h1 − h2 )
Where: Where:
a = cross – sectional area of stand pipe Q = discharge
L = length of the soil specimen r1 = farthest observation
A = cross – sectional area of soil sample r2 = nearest observation
t = time of collection h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
h1 = initial head at t = 0 h2 = height of water at the nearest observation
h2 = final head at t = time of collection t = thickness of aquifer
IV. PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM
WELLS
Unconfined Aquifer
Transmissivity of Aquifer
r 
Q ln  1 
T=  r2 
2 ( z2 − z1 )
T = kb
Where:
Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
z1 = drawdown at the farthest observation
z2 = drawdown at the nearest observation
r  b = thickness of aquifer
Q ln  1  k = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
k=  r2 
(
 h1 − h22
2
) V. EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN
STRATIFIED SOIL
Where:
Q = discharge Horizontal Equivalent
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
h2 = height of water at the nearest observation
Confined Aquifer

XXVIII. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH

UPWARD SEEPAGE
1
kH( eq ) = ( kH1 H1 + kH 2H2 + kH3H3 + + kHn Hn )
H
Vertical Equivalent
H
kV ( eq ) =
 H1   H 2   H3  H 
 + + + + n 
 kV 1   kV 2   kV 3   kVn 
XXVII. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
XXIX. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH DOWNWARD

SEEPAGE

smooth curves when changing direction. Hence, we can draw, by hand or
by computer, a series of smooth curves representing the paths followed
by moving water particles.
Equipotential lines
As the water moves along the flow line it experiences a continuous loss of
head. If we can obtain the head causing flow at points along a flow line,
then by joining up points of equal potential we obtain a second set of lines
known as equipotential lines.
XXXI. FOR ISOTROPIC SOILS
 Nf 
q = kh 
 Nd 
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability / hydraulic conductivity
Δh = total head loss
Nf = number of flow lines
Nd = number of equipotential lines/ potential drop lines
XXXII. FOR NON – ISOTROPIC SOILS
 Nf 
q = kx k y h 
 Nd 
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability / hydraulic conductivity
Δh = total head loss
XXX. CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS Nf = number of flow lines
Nd = number of equipotential lines/ potential drop lines
XXXIII. BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT

LOADS
Flow Nets Assumptions:

1. The soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi –
infinite.
2. The soil is weightless.
Flow Nets 3. The load is a point load acting on the surface.
The flow of water through a soil can be represented graphically by a flow
net, a form of curvilinear net made up of a set of flow lines intersected by
a set of equipotential lines.
Flow lines
The paths which water particles follow during seepage are known as flow
lines. Water flows from points of high to points of low head and makes

 
 
3Q  1  Q
z =   = 2 IB
2 z  
2 5
r 
2 2  z
 
 1 +    
 z  
  
Where:
the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P
r = below the surface and the vertical axis through the
point load Q.
z = The vertical depth of point P from the surface.
3 1
Boussinesq stress coefficient I B =
2 
5
IB =
r  
2 2
1 +   
  z  
XXXVI. BASIC SETTLEMENT FORMULA
XXXIV. WESTERGAARD’S FORMULA FOR

POINT LOADS
 
 
Q  1  Q
z = 2   = 2 Iw
z  
3
r 
2 2  z
 
 1 + 2   
  z   
 
Where:
the horizontal distance between an arbitrary point P
r = below the surface and the vertical axis through the
point load Q.
z = The vertical depth of point P from the surface.
1 1
Westergaard stress coefficient Iw =

3
IB = 2
 2
r 
1 + 2  
 z  H ( eo − ec ) e
H = =H
1 + eo 1 + eo
XXXV. LINE LOADS
Where:
  H = thickness of stratum
  eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
ec = void ratio after the vertical load is applied
q 2/  q
z =   = 2 Iz
z 2
z XXXVII. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
x  
2
 1 +     SETTLEMENT OF NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED FINE –

 z   GRAINED SOILS
  
Cc  P + P 
H = H log  o 
1 + eo  Po 
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress
ΔP = stress increase
XXXVIII. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT OF OVER CONSOLIDATED FINE –
GRAINED SOILS

PO + ΔP < PC
Cs  P + P 
H = H log  o 
1 + eo  Po 
Where:
Cs = swell index
PO + ΔP > PC
Cs P  C  P + P 
H = H log  c  + H c log  o  Rectangular footing
1 + eo  Po  1 + eo  Pc 
 0.3B   0.2B 
qu = cNc 1 + + qNq + 0.5 BN 1 − L 
 L   
Pc
OCR =
Po Strip footing
qu = cNc + qNq + 0.5 BN
Where:
Cs = swell index
Pc = pre – consolidation pressure Square footing
XXXIX. INDEX qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4 BN
Compression Index Circular footing

Cc = 0.009( LL − 10) qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3 BN
e1 − e2 XLII. LOCAL SHEAR FAILURE

Cc =
P 
log  2 
 P1 
Swell Index
1 1
C s = Cc to Cc
5 10
XL. TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

Rectangular footing
Hdr 2
t = Tv  0.3B   0.2B 
Cv qu = c ' Nc ' 1 +  + qNq '+ 0.5 BN ' 1 −
 L   L 
U = 0 to 60%
2
Strip footing
  U%  qu = c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.5 BN '
Tv =
4  100 
Square footing
U > 60% qu = 1.3c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.4 BN '
Tv = 1.781 − 0.933log (100 − U%)
Circular footing
Average Degree of Consolidation qu = 1.3c ' Nc '+ qNq '+ 0.3 BN '
H
U=
Hmax Where:
c = cohesion of the soil
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility q = overburden pressure (effective pressure)
γ = unit weight of the soil
av B = width, diameter
mv = Nc = bearing capacity factor due to cohesion
1 + eave
Nq = bearing capacity factor due to overburden pressure
Nγ = bearing capacity factor due to dimension
e + eo
eave =
2 XLIII. BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS (GENERAL SHEAR)
Where:
eo = initial void ratio
e = final void ratio
ΔP = rise in pressure
XLI. GENERAL SHEAR FAILURE

CASE 3
XLIV. BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS (LOCAL SHEAR)
Case 1
q =  ( Df − D) +  'D
Case 2
q =  Df
Case 3: D ≤ B
 B =  D +  '( B − D )
Case 3: D > B
 =
XLVI. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

The direct shear test is simple to perform, but it has some inherent
shortcomings. The reliability of the results may be questioned because
XLV. EFFECTS OF GROUND WATER TABLE the soil is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane but is forced to
fail along the plane of split of the shear box. Also, the shear stress
CASE 1 distribution over the shear surface of the specimen is not uniform.
Despite these shortcomings, the direct shear test is the simplest and
most economical for a dry or Saturated sandy soil.
CASE 2

XLIX. CONSOLIDATED DRAINED TEST
Normal stress
P
=
A
Shear stress
F
=
A
(F = SHEAR FORCE)
Area of the soil sample considering shortening of length

Ao
A=
1−
Strain

=
L
XLVII. TRI – AXIAL STRESS (NORMALLY

CONSOLIDATED SOIL)
L. COEFFICIENT OF AT REST EARTH (NORMALLY

CONSOLIDATED)
K o = 1 − sin ( )
LI. COEFFICIENT OF AT REST EARTH (OVER

CONSOLIDATED)
K o = (1 − sin ( ) ) OCR
XLVIII. TRI – AXIAL TEST (COHESIVE SOIL)
F = Area of the
triangle
 = 16.181
3.5
m F1 = 31.725
kN
6m 16.181(3.5) =
56.633 Ka(56.633) = 18.13
F2 = 22.66 kN 11/3
b = 10.13
2.5 F3 = 63.45 kN
Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP 5/3
m pw = 9.81(2.5)
56.633
5/6
+ 10.13(2.5) 24.525
= Ka(81.961) = 26.236 neutral stress
81.961
Effective stress, 26.236 + 24.525 = 50.761
LII. RANKINE’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (HORIZONTAL
BACKFILL)
1 − sin ( )
Ka =
1 + sin ( )
LIII. RANKINE’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (HORIZONTAL

BACKFILL)
1 + sin ( )
Kp =
1 − sin ( )
LIX. INFINITE SLOPE FOR CLAYS
LIV. RANKINE’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED

BACKFILL)
cos − cos2  − cos2 

K a = cos A. Factor of safety against sliding (No Pore Water pressure)
cos + cos2  − cos2 
c tan
F .S . = +
LV. RANKINE’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED  H cos2  tan  tan 
BACKFILL)
B. Factor of safety against sliding (Pore Water pressure)
cos + cos2  − cos2 
K a = cos c  'tan
cos − cos2  − cos2  F .S . = +
 sat H cos2  tan  tan 
LVI. COULOMB’S ACTIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED
C. Maximum height of the Slope for which Critical Equilibrium
BACKFILL) occurs
sin2 (  +  ) c
Ka = Hcr =
2
 cos  ( tan  − tan  )
2
 sin ( +  ) sin ( −  ) 
sin2  sin (  −  ) 1 + 
 sin (  −  ) sin ( +  )  LX. INFINTE SLOPE FOR SANDS

LVII. COULOMB’S PASSIVE COEFFICIENT (INCLINED A. Factor of safety without seepage
BACKFILL)
tan
F .S . =
sin (  +  )
2
tan 
Kp = 2
 sin ( +  ) sin ( +  )  B. Factor of safety with partial seepage
sin  sin (  −  ) 1 −
2

 sin (  +  ) sin ( +  ) 
  h  tan
F .S . =  1 − w 
LVIII. PECK’S EMPIRCAL PRESSURE DIAGRAM   sat H  tan 
C. Factor of safety with full seepage

 '  tan
F .S . =  
  sat  tan 
LXI. FINITE SLOPE

Stability Number
Cd
m=
H
Critical height slope

C
Hcr =
m
LXII. PILES ON CLAY

A. Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles
qb = cNc Atip
B. Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Piles
q f = cL P
LXIII. CAPACITY OF GOUP PILES

Efficiency of Group Piles
2( m + n − 2) S + 4D
E=
 Dmn

ENGINEERING FORMULAS FOR DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY & SURFACE TENSION

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ENGINEERING FORMULAS FOR DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY & SURFACE TENSION

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HYDRAULICS & GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

COMPILATION OF FORMULAS – GILLESANIA ENGINEERING REVIEW & TRAINING CENTER

 For NON – RIGID PIPES

P = RT Rapid Closure (tc < 2L/c)

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Triangle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax

Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax

Semi – Circle Centroidx Centroidy Inertiax Inertiay

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Vertical component of hydrostatic force:

The vertical component of the force on a curved surface may be

Factors of Safety against sliding: BUOYANCY

Foundation Pressures Archimedes' Principle

For e > B/6 The factors that affect buoyancy are:

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Rotation (Rotating Vessels)

Notable formulas for rotating vessel.

Height of the paraboloid

Squared Property of Parabola

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Kinetic energy (Velocity Head)

Potential energy (Pressure Head) Energy Equation w/ TURBINE

v2 P With HEAD LOST

Efficiency DEVICE COEFFICIENTS

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM Q

E1 + Eadded − E lost /extraccted = E2

Energy Equation w/o HEAD LOST Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Values of H for various conditions

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

For 90° Weir 2 As

 Channel Bed, Slope = So

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

Semi - Circular Section Critical depth – Rectangular Channel

Total Specific Energy

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

For Rectangular Channels F = Fx 2 + Fy2

V. WEIGHT & VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

VI. POROSITY & VOID RATIO RELATIONSHIP

VII. WATER CONTENT

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

XI. DRY UNIT WEIGHT  d( field )

XXI. DEGREE OF SATURATION

XXIII. SORTING COEFFICIENT

 b =  sat −  w XXIV. ATTERBERG’S LIMITS

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

XXV. TYPES OF INDECES

Rate of the volume change potential

I. USDA (U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

II. USCS (UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

I. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION II. CONSTANT – HEAD TEST

Total Head loss: III. FALLING – HEAD TEST

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

XXVIII. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH

XXIX. STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH DOWNWARD

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP

XXXI. FOR ISOTROPIC SOILS

XXXII. FOR NON – ISOTROPIC SOILS

XXXIII. BOUSSINESQ’S FORMULA FOR POINT

Flow Nets Assumptions:

Prepared by: Engr. Chrysler G. Duaso, CE, RMP