CHAPTER 9: Compressible Flow through Nozzles and Diffusers

9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries

What does compressible flow mean? Recall from fluid mechanics that:
1 dV
= ∇ ⋅V
V dt
where V = mv=m/ρ. If the volume expansion dV /dt is negligible, then ∇ ⋅ V = 0
and the flow is incompressible.

For incompressible flow, the acoustic wave propagates with an infinite velocity,
i.e., adjustments to the flow are made instantaneously.

For compressible flow, small velocity changes propagate because the fluid density
varies, i.e., elastic waves having finite celerity (rapid motion).
1 dρ
∴ = ∇ ⋅V
ρ dt
Integral form of the conservation of mass:
dm d  v r
= 0 =  ∫∫∫ ρdV  + ∫∫ ρ (V ⋅ n )dA
dt dt  CV 
 CS

• Applications of compressible flows:

For high velocitied gases (kinetic energy is significant) with substantial
density variations
e.g., wind tunnel
shock tubes (closed tube with a diaphragm separating high and
low pressure gases −creates a normal shock when broken)*
nozzles and/or diffusers of jet engines
*
used to test supersonic and hypersonic vehicles; develop high-power gas dynamic
and chemical lasers

1
• Consider the governing equations for one-dimensional steady state flow.

conservation of mass: m& i = m& e

 V   V 
conservation of energy: 0 = Q& + m& i  hi + i + gzi  − m& i  he + e + gz e 
 2   2 
Q&
second law: 0 = m& i si − m& e se + + σ&
T

conservation of momentum: F = ma = m& eVe − m& iVi

m& V is the rate of momentum transfer in/out of control volume that

accompanies mass flow

F is the resultant force acting on the control volume (includes pressure at

inlet/exit, gravity and forces exerted on the boundary)

2
• A sound wave is a small pressure disturbance that propagates through a medium
(solid, liquid, gas) at the velocity of sound, c (celerity)

• Analyze a sound wave that propagates through a gas (configuration is a

piston/cylinder assembly, Fig. 9.27). Find a relationship for the speed of sound.

(a) V1=0
p1 T1 ρ 1

V2=∆V
(b) p2 = p1 + ∆p V1=0
T2 = T1 + ∆T c p1 T1 ρ 1
ρ2 = ρ 1 + ∆ ρ

V2 / = c - ∆V
p2 = p1 + ∆p V1 / =c
(c) T2 = T1 + ∆T p1 T1 ρ 1
ρ2 = ρ 1 + ∆ ρ

Figure (a) is the initial state for a gas in a piston-cylinder arrangement.

Figure (b) shows that the piston is moved to the right, causing a pressure
disturbance to propagate downstream with a velocity c. Note the stationary
observer off to the right

Figure (c) changes the reference for the observer. This is done to permit a steady
state analysis such that the wave is the control volume. Thus, from this vantage-
point, the fluid appears to move from right to left, toward the “stationary wave”.

3
conservation of mass
m& 1 = m& 2
ρ1V1/ A1 = ρ 2V2/ A2 A1 = A2
ρ1c = ( ρ1 + ∆ρ )(c − ∆V )
ρ1c = ρ1c + c∆ρ − ρ1∆V − ∆ρ∆V
c∆ρ
∴ ∆V =
ρ

conservation of momentum r
∑ F = m& 2V2 − m& 1V1
(
F = p1 A1 − p2 A2 = m& 1 V2/ − V1/ )
p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ( ρ1cA1 )[(c − ∆V ) − c]
p1 − p2 = − ρ1c∆V
 c∆ρ 
− ∆p = − ρ1c∆V = − ρ1c 
 ρ1 
∆p
∴c2 =
∆ρ

 ∂p 
Therefore, for small changes, that is, a weak sound wave: c =  
 ∂ρ  s

Therefore, a sound wave propagates isentropically, meaning that changes within

the wave are small (negligible friction, thus negligible irreversibilites) and no
significant heat transfer associated with the wave.
*
Although the wave can be analyzed as an isentropic condition, the actual process
can be anything.

4
For an ideal gas, using the relationship for an isentropic process, pvk=constant, and
determining the relationship ∂p/∂ρ = kRT

c = kRT

Proof:
p
pv k = constant ∴ k
= constant = C

p=C k

∂p
∂
(
= C k k −1 )
p
(
= k k k −1 =
kp
)

and pv = RT
∴p= 57

p
∴ = RT

∂p
∴ = kRT
∂

• Mach number, M = V/c

M >> 1 flow is hypersonic (M > 5; high temperatures
chemical reactions)
M>1 flow is supersonic
M~1 flow is transonic (0.8 < M < 1.2)
M=1 flow is sonic
M<1 flow is subsonic

5
• Stagnation Properties
Analyze nozzles and diffusers. These devices can be assumed isentropic
(negligible heat transfer, high efficiencies of 95%)

nozzle: converts enthalpy of fluid into kinetic energy ∆V > 0)

diffuser: converts kinetic energy into enthalpy (∆V < 0)

In order to formulate possible isentropic flow conditions, need a reference state to

relate the properties: stagnation (total) state.

Stagnation condition: the state that a moving fluid would achieve if the fluid were
decelerated to zero velocity, isentropically.

Derive a relationship to relate the stagnation condition to a state where the fluid is
moving. Consider the deceleration of a fluid through a diffuser. Neglecting heat
transfer, potential energy effects, and assuming the flow process is reversible:

m& i = m& e Vi Ve ≈ 0
2
Vi Ve2 pi Ti ρi pe Te ρe
hi + = he + e
2 2 i
si = s e

Between the stagnation condition, Vo = 0 and any state:

V2 T
ho = h + po
2 To (maximum conditions)
so = s
p (properties decrease when
T fluid moves)

Thus, the stagnation condition is the maximum condition that a fluid can attain at a
particular state when the fluid is at rest. Thus, once the fluid moves significantly,
the enthalpy (and temperature) decreases: h = ho − V 2 2 .

6
For a more general formulation of stagnation conditions, consider the flow through
a nozzle where the flow is not necessarily isentropic. Assume the flow is at steady
state, adiabatic, no work transfer and potential energy is negligible. However,
irreversibilities may exist.

m& 1 = m& 2 = m&

V1 V2
V12 V22 p1 T1 ρ1 p2 T2 ρ2
h1 + = h2 +
2 2 1 2
σ& = m& ( s2 − s1 )

V12
The inlet stagnation enthalpy is ho1 = h1 + with a corresponding To1 po1 and ρo1.
2
V22
Likewise for the exit, the stagnation enthalpy is ho 2 = ho 2 + with To2 po2 and ρo2
2

Therefore, ho1 = ho 2 and the stagnation enthalpy is constant throughout the flow
regardless of the process.

For the problems that we will consider, the fluid will be an ideal gas. Thus, the
enthalpies are a function of temperature only. Also, bear in mind that the
stagnation condition refers to decelerating a flow isentropically. Thus, for ideal
gases, the stagnation conditions can be related to the actual conditions by:
k
po  To  −1
k
=  where k is the specific heat for an isentropic relationship.
p T 
T
po1 po2
p1 To1= To2
T1
p2
T2

s1 s2 s
7
9.13 One-dimensional steady state flow
• Examine the effects of compressibility on the shape of the device
(equations derived in Sect. 9.13.1)

∴
dA
A
=−
dV
V
(
1− M 2 )

where the properties change according to :

dh = −VdV
dp = ρdh
dρ = dp / c 2

type dV M ∴dA shape

dh < 0
subsonic nozzle >0 <1 <0 dp < 0
(converging nozzle) dρ < 0

dh < 0
supersonic nozzle >0 >1 >0 dp < 0
(diverging nozzle) dρ < 0

dh > 0
subsonic diffuser <0 <1 >0 dp > 0
(diverging diffuser) dρ > 0

supersonic diffuser dh > 0

(converging <0 >1 <0 dp > 0
diffuser) dρ > 0

8
• Note that for a subsonic nozzle, the maximum velocity condition that can be
reached at the exit is when M =1. In order to increase the fluid velocity further,
the nozzle shape must change. Thus, to accelerate a fluid subsonically, use a
converging nozzle. Once M =1, need a diverging nozzle.

converging-diverging nozzle:

M<1 M>1

throat area, t
M =1

• To decelerate a fluid supersonically, use a converging diffuser. However, the

minimum velocity at the exit corresponds to M =1. Thus, to further decelerate
the fluid, need a diverging diffuser.

converging-diverging diffuser:

M>1 M<1

throat area, t
M =1

9
• Converging and diverging nozzles (supplemental handout; in-class discussion)
Analyze how the back pressure (pressure in the exhaust region outside of the
nozzle) affects the flow upstream.

½ Converging nozzles:
ΠAs the back pressure is reduced lower than the stagnation pressure, the mass
flow rate increases and the flow moves subsonically through the nozzle.
Note that the changes in the back pressure can be transmitted upstream
because the flow is subsonic (V<c). Thus, the exit pressure equals the back
pressure, pE = pB.
ΠThe back pressure can be reduced further until a critical point is obtained
where the mass flow rate is at a maximum (for the given stagnation
conditions). This critical condition is referred to as choked flow, and the
Mach no. is unity (M = 1) at the exit. Hence the nozzle exit pressure is at a
minimum, p*.
ΠFurther reducing the pressure has no effect on the flow upstream. Thus, the
exit pressure equal the critical pressure, i.e., pE = p*.

½ Converging-diverging nozzles:
ΠAs the back pressure is reduced, the mass flow rate increases before the
throat (nozzle, M < 1) and after the throat the flow is still subsonic (diffuser,
M < 1). Note that the exit and back pressures are equal, pE = pB.
ΠOnce the back pressure is reduced such that the flow chokes at the throat, the
mass flow rate is a maximum and M = 1. After the throat, the flow remains
subsonic in the diverging section (subsonic diffuser). Note that the lowest
pressure is at the throat where pt = p*. At the exit, pE = pB.
ΠFurther reducing the back pressure alters the flow in the diverging section;
the flow expands (p decreases) and becomes supersonic (supersonic nozzle).

Note that the flow is unstable and a normal shock can form. The shock
causes the pressure to increase and the velocity to decrease; hence the flow
is subsonic in the diverging section (subsonic diffuser).
ΠReducing the back pressure further eventually causes shocks to form either
within the nozzle (normal shocks) or outside of the nozzle (oblique shocks).

10
• Flow across a normal shock
Πshock is a rapid and irreversible condition (discontinuity); thus the flow
through a shock is nonisentropic
Πconsider a control volume around the shock; note that the shock is of
infinitesimal thickness (10-5 cm)
(neglect heat transfer, work transfer, potential energy and wall forces)

Mx My
px Tx ρx py Ty ρy
hx sx x y hy sy

conservation of mass:
m& x = m& y
ρ xVx Ax = ρ yV y Ay Ax = Ay

conservation of energy:
2
Vx2 Vy
hx + = hy +
2 2
∴ hox = hoy
second law:
σ& = m& ( s y − s x )

conservation of momentum:
r
∑ = m& yV y − m& xVx
F
p x Ax − p y Ay = ρ yV y Ay − ρ xVx Ax

11
• Fanno and Rayleigh lines:
ΠFanno line: combination of conservation of mass and energy when plotted
on a h−s diagram
ΠRayleigh line: combination of conservation of mass and momentum when
plotted on a h−s diagram
ΠNote:
1. The position where the lines cross mark the state before the shock (M >1)
and after the shock (M <1), thus identifying the process.
2. The maximum entropy for each curve corresponds to where M = 1.
3. The lower branches are for supersonic flow and the upper branches are
subsonic flow.

• Property changes across a shock

hox = hoy ∴Tox = Toy

Mx >1 and My < 1 ∴Vx > Vy
∴ px < py (recall that a decrease in velocity accompanies an increase in
pressure; discussion from converging-diverging nozzles)

Therefore, from conservation of mass: ρx < ρy

And from the equation of state ( p=ρRT ): Tx < Ty

Combining isentropic relations (9.50, 9.51) with the above analysis: pox > poy

12
9.14 Flow in Nozzles/Diffusers: ideal gases with constant specific heats

• The stagnation states can be related to a state in compressible flow; incorporate

isentropic flow functions.
• Assume the ideal gas is a function of constant specific heats.

V2
the stagnation state is defined as: ho = h +
2
V2
for an ideal gas: dh = cp dT To = T +
2c p
introduce the following relations:

k = c p cv and c p − cv = R
M =V c where c = kRT

kR
then cp = and V 2 = M 2 (kRT )
k −1

To k −1 2
∴ =1+ M (9.50)
T 2

Recall for an isentropic process, where n=k:

k ( k −1)
po  To 
= 
p T 
k ( k −1)
p  k −1 2 
∴ o = 1 + M  (9.51)
p  2 

Another reference state is with respect to sonic flow, where M* = 1, which occurs
at the smallest section of a device, i.e., the throat with area A*. It is convenient to
relate an area A at a given section to the area A* that would be achieved if the flow
were sonic with the same mass flow rate and stagnation state (analogous to a
reference condition).

13
 From conservation of mass: ρAV=ρ*A*V*
Using definitions of the Mach number:

(k +1) 2 ( k −1)
A 1  2  k − 1 2 
=  1 + M  (9.52)
A* M  k + 1  2 

Thus, based on the equation above, for a value of A/A* other than unity, there are
two possible values for the Mach number (refer to Figure 9.33).

• For a normal shock, the relationships are:

k −1 2
1+ Mx
Ty 2 py 1 + kM x2 Ty M x
= = =
Tx k −1 2 p x 1 + kM y2 Tx M y
1+ My
2
( k +1) / 2 ( k −1)
2  k −1 2 
+ 1+
Mx 
M x2 p oy My 
M y2 = k −1 =  2 
2k p ox My  k −1 2 
M x2 − 1 1 + Mx 
k −1  2 

Ax* p oy
=
A*y p ox

Recall that if the flow reaches sonic conditions within the nozzle, then a
corresponding A* exits when M*=1. Also, because the shock causes the flow to
become subsonic afterward, a new reference sonic condition exits (A*y).

To1=Tox To2=Toy
po1=pox po2=poy
M1 T1 p1 Mx My M2 T2 p2
px Tx py Ty
x y

A*=A*x
1 A*y 2

14