Learning About Car Design and

Construction
Before you can begin designing or building your own car, you will need to learn the
fundamentals of how cars work. How much you need to know depends on how
challenging the design and construction of the car you want to build is going to be.
Lightly modifying a stock road car requires less knowledge than building a car from
scratch, but all amateur car builders can benefit from having more knowledge than it
takes to build their car.

Stock car chassis under construction (From The Race Car Chassis : Design, Structures
and Materials for Road, Drag and Circle Track Open- and Closed-Wheel Chassis by
Forbes Aird

You Can Do It!

Do not be deterred by the technical jargon or math shown in some books. The basic
knowledge of how cars work can be had from many books. The math and science of car
design can be largely figured out by analyzing examples created by others (again in many
books). Computer software can also be helpful in performing simulations and
calculations.

You should assess and feel comfortable with your design before committing to build it,
but If you draw upon a good general knowledge from books and then borrow from other’s
examples, you will be capable of designing and building your own car!
What To Know
Knowledge about cars (for our design and building purposes) can be grouped into four
categories, and we’ll discuss what you might need to know from each of these categories
depending on the type of car you want to build.

Mercedes 300 SL Cut-away diagram (From The Race Car Chassis : Design, Structures
and Materials for Road, Drag and Circle Track Open- and Closed-Wheel Chassis by
Forbes Aird)

The categories are:

1. Car handling / Vehicle dynamics / operation – This category includes how a car
behaves when in motion. We’ve all seen race cars leaning, spinning, sliding and
the like during a race. These are all responses to forces acting upon the mass
of a race car through its tires. All cars exhibit these behaviors when pushed to
their limits.
2. Car components, design and construction – This category includes what each
part of a car does, and how it connects and works with the other parts. This
category includes sub-categories like chassis, suspension, drivetrain,
aerodynamic devices, and safety/ergonomics.
3. Car materials, fasteners, and joining – This category encompasses the
materials we build a car with, the ways that we connect parts of the car and the
physical properties of the connections
 4.
Diagram demonstrating the air flow over a vehicle with an air dam (From
Competition Car Downforce: A Practical Guide by Simon McBeath)
Car sciences / engineering – aerodynamics, structural loading, material fatigue,
vibration/cycling – This category delves deeper into the underlying physics that
affect not only the performance of a car, but the longevity and safety. BTW:
Knowledge of this category also carries over nicely into other machines such
as aircraft, motorcycles and even into buildings and bridges.

The categories do overlap each other, but generally speaking they represent distinct areas
of knowledge one can have about cars.

Get Started
Get started learning today with our free online guides or explore more in-depth car design
and construction knowledge with our books section. If you haven’t already done so,
check out our car types guide to find the car/vehicle you’d like to build. Many people
choose Race cars as they are the most pure expression of thrills and speed, while others
enjoy street machines. Still others enjoy off-road fun. It’s up to you! Enjoy!

● Why cars handle the way they do and how to optimize their handling for the best
performance
● What a suspension does, the various types used in race cars and
high-performance vehicles and key design considerations
● Chassis types and how they can be designed for maximum performance
● Car powertrain configurations and their advantages and disadvantages
● How air flows around a car and how to get the most out of the aerodynamics by
using aero devices.
● Ways to make your car safe for you and for those around you
● How the cockpit design enables you to maximize driver performance.
Choosing A Race Car, Sports Car or
Off-Road Vehicle Type To Build
Choosing a car to build involves answering some important questions about the type of
project you want. The questions provided below cover a number of aspects to consider
but bear in mind that there is no requirement to “think small” just because your budget is
small or just because you are a beginner.

Race and Road Car engineering, after all, is possibly the most powerful expression of
creativity available today and it is the passion for this experience that makes a successful
project–not an endless budget, time or opportunity.

To help you consider what type of vehicle might interest you, check out our Car Types
guide which provide helpful information about many types of cars, trucks and other
vehicles.

How much money do I have to spend on a car project? How much can I afford to
spend annually on maintenance and transport?

Knowing your budget will provide insight into what projects are financially feasible in
the short-term, and what projects could be feasible if resources were applied over a
longer term.

How much time can I apply to this project?

Your time commitment will factor into how long your project takes and can affect
long-term motivation for bigger projects.

What tracks and sanctioning bodies are in my area or transport range?

If you want to go racing, you need a place to do it that is within range and an
organizer for the racing.

Production or Donor-based car racing is usually available in most areas where there
is a race track and even in some areas where public roads or parking lots can be
closed.
Scratch-built car racing is usually available in areas where there is a race track. Like
production-based or donor cars, scratch-built cars can participate in time-trial
(Autocross) racing on closed roads and parking lots as well.

Do I want to race in an existing sanctioned racing series or do I want to build my own

unique vehicle?

Depending on your dreams, you may have a racing series in mind or may want to
build a prototype of a new race or road car or offroad vehicle.

For sanctioned racing, what classes are available and do they require a donor or
scratch-built car?

Production or Donor-based car racing is usually available in most areas where there
is a race track and even in some areas where public roads or parking lots can be
closed. Above and beyond the cost of the donor vehicle, the build and racing costs of
donor-based cars is generally lower than scratch-builts. Build time is also usually
lower.

Scratch-built car racing is usually available in areas where there is a race track. Like
production-based or donor cars, scratch-built cars can participate in time-trial
(Autocross) racing on closed roads and parking lots as well. Scratch-built cars
generally cost more to build and take a longer time to build than donor-based cars,
but a lot depends on how minimalist a scratch-built car you choose or how exotic a
donor car you choose.

What kind of car type really gets you excited?

Choosing a car type should include more than just "What's available", but also what
you like. If possible, test-drive an example of the vehicle type to see if you like the
feel. Consider too, that not every type of machine needs to be raced to be thrilling.
Consider dune buggies, offroad trucks and sports cars too.
Designing Your Own Race Car, Sports Car or
Off-Road Truck

Designing your own vehicle, even if you don’t build it, can be a very rewarding
experience. You’ll learn a lot about how cars work and if you do build it, you’ll be part of a
select group of people who’ve taken on the challenge of building their dream.

Once you choose the type of vehicle you’re interested in, it’s time to begin thinking about
how your vehicle is going to look, perform and cost.

Vision/Concept

Car design is a process that begins with a vision or concept of the vehicle to be created.
Much like production vehicle design, DIY car design seeks to define goals and objectives
for the design. In passenger vehicles, the objectives are usually around price, acceptable
performance and safety and satisfying the transportation needs of the target market.

Common Race or Performance Vehicle Objectives

For racing cars, the objectives are much more oriented toward pure performance. The
primary objectives of most race cars or performance cars are:

● Maximum acceleration and deceleration

● Maximum cornering speed
● Driver/occupant safety
● Cost of the final product

Almost every objective you can dream up will relate to performance, cost, safety or
aesthetics. Regardless of how important you believe an objective to be, it should be
included for your consideration as it is in the details that a good design becomes great.
Sanctioning Body Regulations

If you are planning to participate in a sanctioned race series, the regulations published by
the sanctioning body will also form part of the vision for the race vehicle. Although
regulations are often seen as limitations, they should also be seen as opportunities,
assuming there is leeway in the interpretation of them.

Example Objectives/Vision Statements

Let’s consider some example objectives and vision statements:

● Total Parts Cost to remain below $10,000 (Vision/objective)

● Track width front not to exceed 72 inches (Regulations)
● Tires restricted to Greatrich XZ100 series (Regulations)
● Total vehicle weight not to exceed 1300 lbs (Regulations)
● Center of Gravity reduced 2″ from last year’s car (Vision/Objective)
● Side impact protection sustain 80 mph impact (Vision/Objective)
● Sleek, Flowing, Curving bodywork (Vision/Objective)

Once you have defined and documented the vision for the car then you will have a
baseline of concepts and specifications to design from.

To assist you in documenting your vision and objectives we have prepared a Conceptual
Drawing Template and a Component Worksheet document which are available as free
downloads. The conceptual drawing can help you define the look/layout of your vehicle,
while the Component Worksheet can help record the objectives/vision/regulations for
each component in your car design.
Design Process

The Design of a vehicle is an iterative process where you attempt to meet all objectives
you have defined. In practice, you usually won’t meet all of them, but hopefully most.

If you are designing a car from a donor car chassis, your process will involve determining
how the vehicle components can be changed to meet your vision/objectives. If you are
designing from scratch, your process will involve the design and selection of components
from the rubber on the road on up.

Iterations

Car design is iterative (that is, requiring repeated re-designs) because with the exception
of a few parts on a car, all parts attach to another in some way.

To illustrate, let’s picture a wheel on a race car. The wheel attaches to a tire and it also
attaches to a wheel hub. If I decide to change the wheel from a 4 bolt by 4″ bolt circle to a
5 bolt by 5″ bolt circle, I’ll need to change the wheel hub as well. Now let’s say that wheel
is no longer available in the size we need to fit the tire. I’ll need to change the tire as well.
Further, what happens if the new wheel hub doesn’t fit the spindle I have? I’ll need to
change it too and so on…

As you can see, changing one part can affect many parts “upstream” and “downstream”
from that one part which is why we need to “Iteratively” design by going back and
re-designing around a changed part.

The process itself is really not that complicated, but it does require some patience if you
are scratch-building. Donor car builders will find their job a little easier in that the
components the car comes with usually limit the design options and therefore the number
of iterations necessary to get the best design possible.
Design Process Variations

Depending on whether you are starting from scratch or a donor car (The “Design Start
point”) or are designing with sanctioning body regulations or your own vision (The
“Design Basis”), there are four possible variations in the car design process.

In the diagram below is a matrix of the four variations. Click on the “View Design Process”
to view the design process variation that matches your chosen vehicle type.

Engineering Considerations

As you design, it is important that you understand the demands placed upon your vehicle
in the environment it is intended to operate in. If you consider that driving at 100 mph on a
paved race circuit places far different demands on a vehicle than traveling at the same
speed over a desert trail, then the ability to design or select components that match your
needs becomes important.
How do you design or select the right components? This is where two types of knowledge
come in handy: Book knowledge and Practical/Research Knowledge.

Engineering Knowledge

Book knowledge lays the foundation for our understanding of the engineering used in
cars and trucks. The basics of metallurgy, structural design, and aerodynamics (among
other disciplines), enable us to understand “How” stuff works. This knowledge also
enables us to formulate a rough estimation of how a particular component might perform.
Every amateur designer should have this knowledge, but scratch-builders even more so.

Practical Knowledge

Practical observation and research ties our book knowledge to real-world examples. For
instance, if you are designing a rally car, then researching the material, tube diameter and
structure of a typical rally roll cage will enable you to tie your basic engineering
knowledge to a practical example. Given even more practical examples of roll cages, you
could use your knowledge to build a roll cage for your car and potentially even for other
types of cars. The best practical examples are from vehicles that closely match the
weight, speed and operating environment of your car.

Testing/Verification

Finally, while both engineering knowledge and practical observations can provide
reasonable confidence in component designs or selections, physically or virtually testing
the component can be the final way of assessing if your component works. Mechanical
testing has been around for a very long time, and modern software has evolved over the
years to enable amateurs to run basic simulations of structures (FEA or Finite Element
Analysis) and airflows (CFD or Computational Fluid Dynamics or the “virtual wind
tunnel”).
Car Aerodynamics Basics and How-To
Design Tips
Aerodynamics is the science of how air flows around and inside objects. More generally, it can be
labeled “Fluid Dynamics” because air is really just a very thin type of fluid. Above slow speeds,
the air flow around and through a vehicle begins to have a more pronounced effect on the
acceleration, top speed, fuel efficiency and handling.

Therefore, to build the best possible car we need to understand and optimize how the air flows
around and through the body, its openings and its aerodynamic devices.

Aerodynamic Principles

Drag

No matter how slowly a car is going, it takes some energy to move the car through the air. This
energy is used to overcome a force called Drag.

Drag, in vehicle aerodynamics, is comprised primarily of three forces:

1. Frontal pressure, or the effect created by a vehicle body pushing air out of the way.
2. Rear vacuum, or the effect created by air not being able to fill the hole left by the
vehicle body.
3. Boundary layer, or the effect of friction created by slow moving air at the surface of the
vehicle body.

Between these three forces, we can describe most of the interactions of the airflow with a vehicle
body.
Frontal Pressure

Frontal pressure is caused by the air attempting to flow around the front of the vehicle as shown
in diagram D1 below.

Diagram D1. Frontal Pressure is a form of drag where the vehicle must push air molecules out of
the way as it travels through the air.

As millions of air molecules approach the front of the car, they begin to compress, and in doing
so raise the air pressure in front of the car. At the same time, the air molecules travelling along
the sides of the car are at atmospheric pressure, a lower pressure compared to the molecules at
the front of the car.

Just like an air tank, if the valve to the lower pressure atmosphere outside the tank is opened, the
air molecules will naturally flow to the lower pressure area, eventually equalizing the pressure
inside and outside the tank. The same rules apply to any vehicle. The compressed molecules of
air naturally seek a way out of the high pressure zone in front of the vehicle, and they find it
around the sides, top and bottom of the vehicle as demonstrated in diagram D1.

Rear Vacuum

Rear vacuum is caused by the “hole” left in the air as a vehicle passes through it. To visualize
this, let’s take a look at our demonstration car in diagram D2 below. As it drives down a road, the
blocky sedan shape of the car creates a hole in the air. The air rushes around the body as
described above.

At speeds above a crawl, the space immediately behind the car’s rear window and trunk is
“empty” or like a vacuum. These empty areas are the result of the air molecules not being able to
fill the hole as quickly as the car can make it. The air molecules attempt to fill in to this area, but
the car is always one step ahead, and as a result, a continuous vacuum sucks in the opposite
direction of the car.
 Diagram D2. Rear Vacuum (Also known as flow detachment) is another form of drag where the air
the vehicle is passing through cannot fill the space of the hole left behind by the vehicle, leading to
what amounts to a vacuum.

This inability to fill the hole left by the car is technically called Flow detachment.

Flow detachment applies only to the “rear vacuum” portion of the drag forces and has a greater
and greater negative effect as vehicle speed increases. In fact, the drag increase with the square
of the vehicle speed, so more and more horsepower is needed to push a vehicle through the air
as its speed rises.

Therefore, when a vehicle reaches high speeds it becomes important to design the car to limit
areas of flow detachment. Ideally, we give the air molecules time to follow the contours of a car’s
bodywork, and to fill the hole left by the vehicle, its tires, its suspension and its protrusions (i.e.
mirrors, roll bars).

If you have witnessed the Le Mans race cars, you will have seen how the tails of these cars tend
to extend well back of the rear wheels, and narrow when viewed from the side or top. This extra
bodywork allows the air molecules to converge back into the vacuum smoothly along the body
into the hole left by the car’s cockpit, and front area, instead of having to suddenly fill a large
empty space.

The force created by the rear vacuum exceeds that created by frontal pressure, so there is very
good reason to minimize the scale of the vacuum created at the rear of the vehicle.
 Diagram D3. Turbulence is created by the detachment of an air flow from the vehicle. The final
unavoidable detachment at the very rear of the vehicle leaves a turbulent wake.

When the flow detaches, the air flow becomes very turbulent and chaotic when compared to the
smooth flow on the front of an object.

If we look at a protrusion from the car such as the mirror in diagram D3 above, we see flow
detachment and turbulence in action. The air flow detaches from the flat side of the mirror, which
of course faces toward the back of the car.

The turbulence created by this detachment can then affect the air flow to parts of the car which
lie behind the mirror. Intake ducts, for instance, function best when the air entering them flows
smoothly. Wings generate far more downforce with smooth flows over them as well. Therefore,
the entire length of the car really needs to be optimized (within reason) to provide the least
amount of turbulence at high speed.

Drag Coefficient

To enable the comparison of the drag produced by one vehicle versus another, a dimensionless
value called the Coefficient of Drag or Cd was created. Every vehicle has a Cd which can be
measured using wind tunnel data. The Cd can be used in drag equations to determine the drag
force at various speeds. In his comprehensive book “Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for
Speed“, Joseph Katz provides a table of common vehicles and their Cds and Frontal Areas. Here
is an excerpt from that table:
 Car Drag Coefficients (Excerpt from “Race Car Aerodynamics” by Joseph Katz. ©
Bentley Publishers)

Vehicle Type Drag Frontal area

Coefficient Cq A[m2] CDA [m2]

Ford Escort 1.3 GL 0.39-0.41 1.83 0.71-0.75

Nissan Cherry GL 0.39-0.41 1.83 0.71-0.75

Volvo 360 GLT 0.40-0.41 1.95 0.78-0.80

Honda Accord 1.8 EX 0.40-0.42 1.88 0.75-0.79

Nissan Stanza SGL 1.8 0.40-0.42 1.88 0.75-0.79

Mazda 323 1.5 0.41-0.43 1.78 0.73-0.77

Nissan Sunny 0.41-0.43 1.82 0.75-0.78

Talbot Horizon GL 0.41-0.44 1.85 0.76-0.81

Alfa Romeo Giulietta 1.6 0.42-0.44 1.87 0.79-0.82

Toyota Corolla 1300 DX 0.45-0.46 1.76 0.79-0.81

VW Golf Cabrio GL 0.48-0.49 1.86 0.89-0.91

Full-size sedans

Renault 25 TS 0.30-0.31 2.04 0.61-0.63

Audi 100 1.8 0.30-0.31 2.05 0.62-0.64

Mercedes 190 E (190 D) 0.33-0.35 1.90 0.63-0.67

Mercedes 380 SEC 0.34-0.35 2.10 0.71-0.74

Mercedes 280 SE 0.36-0.37 2.15 0.77-0.80

Mercedes 500 SEL 0.36-0.37 2.16 0.78-0.80

BMW 518i (520i, 525e) 0.36-0.38 2.02 0.73-0.77

Citroen CX 25 Gti 0.36-0.39 1.99 0.72-0.78

BMW 323i 0.38-0.39 1.86 0.71-0.73

Alfa Romeo 90 2.0 0.38-0.40 1.95 0.74-0.78

Mazda 929 2.0 GLX 0.39-0.44 1.93 0.75-0.85

Saab 900 Gli 0.40-0.42 1.95 0.78-0.82

Volvo 740 GLE 0.40-0.42 2.16 0.86-0.91

Volvo 760 Turbo w/intercooler 0.40-0.42 2.16 0.86-0.91

Peugeot 505 STI 0.41-0.43 1.97 0.81-0.85

Peugeot 604 STI 0.41-0.43 2.05 0.84-0.88

BMW 728i (732i/735i) 0.42-0.44 2.13 0.89-0.94

BMW 745i 0.43-0.45 2.14 0.92-0.96

Ford Granada 2.3 GL 0.44-0.46 2.13 0.94-0.98

Sports cars

Porsche 924 0.31-0.33 1.80 0.56-0.59

Porsche 944 Turbo 0.33-0.34 1.90 0.63-0.65

Nissan 300 ZX 0.33-0.36 1.82 0.60-0.66

Mazda 626 Coupe 0.34-0.36 1.88 0.64-0.68

Opel Monza GSE 0.35-0.36 1.95 0.68-0.70

Renault Fuego GTX 0.34-0.37 1.82 0.62-0.67

Honda CRX Coupe 0.35-0.37 1.72 0.60-0.64

Audi Coupe GT 5E 0.36-0.37 1.83 0.66-0.68

Chevrolet Corvette 0.36-0.38 1.80 0.65-0.68

Chevrolet Camaro Z 28 E 0.37-0.38 1.94 0.72-0.74

Mazda RX-7 0.36-0.39 1.69 0.61-0.66

Toyota Celica Supra 2.8i 0.37-0.39 1.83 0.68-0.71

VW Scirocco GTX 0.38-0.39 1.74 0.66-0.68

 Porsche 911 Carrera 0.38-0.39 1.78 0.68-0.69

Honda Prelude 0.38-0.40 1.84 0.70-0.74

Mitsubishi Starion Turbo 0.38-0.40 1.84 0.70-0.74

Porsche 928 S 0.38-0.40 1.96 0.74-0.78

Porsche 911 Carrera Cabrio 0.40-0.41 1.77 0.71-0.73

Jaguar XJ-S 0.40-0.41 1.92 0.77-0.79

From this table and our knowledge of the body shape of some of these vehicles, we can
conclude that the best Cd is achieved when a vehicle has these attributes:

● Has a small nose/grill, to minimize frontal pressure.

● Has minimal ground clearance below the grill, to minimize air flow under the car.
● Has a steeply raked windshield (if any) to avoid pressure build up in front.
● Has a “Fastback” style rear window/deck or sloped bodywork, to permit the air flow to
stay attached.
● Has a converging “Tail” to keep the air flow attached, and to minimize the area against
which flow detachment eventually occurs
If it sounds like we’ve just described a sports car, you’re right. In truth though, to be ideal, a car
body would be shaped like a tear drop, as even the best sports cars experience flow detachment.
However, tear drop shapes are not conducive to the area where a car operates, and that is close
to the ground. Airplanes don’t have this limitation, and therefore teardrop shapes work.

The best road cars today manage a Cd of about 0.28. Formula 1 cars, with their wings and open
wheels (a massive drag component) manage a minimum of about 0.75.

If we consider that a flat plate has a Cd of about 1.0, an F1 car really seems inefficient, but what
an F1 car lacks in aerodynamic drag efficiency, it makes up for in downforce and horsepower.

Aerodynamics How-To Tips (1/4)

Cover Open wheels

Open wheels create a great deal of drag and air flow turbulence, similar to the diagram of the
mirror in the “Turbulence” section above. Full covering bodywork is probably the best solution, if
legal by regulations, but if partial bodywork is permitted, placing a converging fairing behind the
wheel provides maximum benefit.

Minimize Frontal Area

The smaller the hole your car punches through the air, the better it will accelerate, the higher the
top speed, and the lower the fuel consumption it will have. It is usually much easier to reduce FA
(frontal area) than the Cd (Drag coefficient).

Converge Bodywork Slowly

Bodywork which quickly converges or is simply truncated, forces the air flow into turbulence, and
generates a great deal of drag. As mentioned above, it also can affect aerodynamic devices and
bodywork further behind on the vehicle body.
Frontal Area

Drag coefficient, by itself is only useful in determining how “Slippery” a vehicle is. To understand
the full aerodynamic effect of a vehicle’s body shape, we need to take into account the frontal
area of the vehicle. The frontal area defines the size of the hole the vehicle makes in the air as it
drives through it.

In diagram FA1 below, the sedan car makes a far smaller hole in the air than the semi-trailer
tractor.

Diagram FA1. Frontal areas of a car and large truck. Minimizing frontal area in car design is
important and easier than reducing the Cd which is almost always more difficult.

So then it is by combining the Cd with the Frontal area that we arrive at the actual amount of
drag created by a vehicle.

Lift/Downforce

Downforce is the same force as the lift experienced by airplane wings, only it acts to press down
instead of lifting up. Every object travelling through air creates either a lifting or downforce
situation. Most race cars and some road cars use aerodynamic devices such as inverted wings
to force the car down onto the road, increasing traction. The average street car however tends to
create lift. This is because the car body shape generates a low pressure area above itself.

According to Bernoulli’s principle, for a given volume of air, the higher the velocity the air
molecules are travelling, the lower the pressure becomes. Likewise, for a given volume of air, the
lower the velocity of the air molecules, the higher the pressure becomes. This applies to air in
motion across a still body, or to a vehicle in motion, moving through relatively still air.

In the Frontal Pressure section above, we said that the air pressure was high as the air rammed
into the front grill of the car. What is happening is that the air slows down as it approaches the
front of the car, and as a result more molecules are packed into a smaller space. Once the air
stagnates at the point in front of the car, it seeks a lower pressure area, such as the sides, top
and bottom of the car.
Diagram LD1 below demonstrates this effect using arrows to indicate the air velocity and density.

Diagram LD1. Drag, lift and downforce from over body flow. The body shape creates lift and
downforce from the air flow. Drag is cumulative as the air flows from the front to the rear of the
vehicle.

As the air flows over the hood of the car, it’s loses pressure, but when it reaches the windscreen,
it again comes up against a barrier, and briefly reaches a higher pressure. The lower pressure
area above the hood of the car creates a small lifting force that acts upon the area of the hood
(Sort of like trying to suck the hood off the car). The higher pressure area in front of the
windscreen creates downforce. This is akin to pressing down on the windshield.

Where most road cars get into trouble is the fact that there is a large surface area on top of the
car’s roof. As the higher pressure air in front of the wind screen travels over the windscreen, it
accelerates, causing the pressure to drop. This lower pressure literally lifts on the car’s roof as
the air passes over it.

Worse still, once the air makes its way to the rear window, the notch created by the window
dropping down to the trunk creates a vacuum (or low pressure space) that the air is not able to fill
properly. The flow is said to detach and the resulting lower pressure creates lift that then acts
upon the surface area of the trunk. Prior to the use of aerodynamic devices to reduce these
effects, race car drivers would feel the car becoming “light” in the rear when travelling at high
speeds.

Not to be forgotten, the underside of the car is also responsible for creating lift or downforce. If a
car’s front end is lower than the rear end, then the front end restricts the air flow under the car
and the widening gap between the underside and the road creates a low pressure area. If there
is neutral or higher air pressure above the car, then we get downforce due to the difference in the
pressure above and below the car. See the diagram LD2 below:

Diagram LD2. Downforce from raked underbody. The widening gap between the underside of the
car and the road lowers the air pressure underneath.

So, as you can see, the airflow over a car is filled with high and low pressure areas, the sum of
which indicate that the car body either naturally creates lift or downforce.

Use Spoilers

Spoilers are widely used on sedan type cars such as NASCAR stock cars. These aerodynamic
aids produce downforce by creating a “dam” at the rear lip of the trunk, raising the air pressure
over the trunk. Where a notch left by the rear window exists a spoiler can help restore pressure
to the void behind the window.

Use Wings

Wings are the inverted version of what you find on aircraft. They work very efficiently, and in less
aggressive forms generate more downforce than drag, so they are loved in many racing circles
and by high performance road car builders. Wings are best placed in areas that have clear
airflow to them. Placing a wing behind an obstruction reduces the downforce the wing can
produce.
Use Front Air Dams

Air dams at the front of the car restrict the flow of air reaching the underside of the car. This
creates a lower pressure area under the car, effectively providing downforce. In many cases, the
air dam also reduces the Cd of the vehicle.

Aerodynamic Devices
Aerodynamic devices provided a means of taking advantage airflow around a vehicle. Some
devices increase the effectiveness of airflows within the body of the vehicle, such as those
feeding a radiator or engine. Other devices create downforce to increase traction.

Scoops/Positive pressure intakes

Scoops, or positive pressure intakes, are useful in providing a mild “Ram Air” or “Supercharging”
effect to a combustion engine. They work on the principle that the air flow compresses inside an
“air box” when subjected to a constant and oncoming flow of air. The air box has an opening that
permits an adequate volume of air to enter, and the expanding air box itself slows the air flow to
increase the pressure inside the box. The faster the vehicle travels, the greater the pressure
increase and air volume through the air box. Diagram AD1 below shows a scoop and air box:

Diagram AD1. Scoops or intakes direct the flow of cool air into an expanding airbox which allows
the air pressure to increase, creating more horsepower.
NACA Ducts

NACA ducts are useful when air needs to be drawn into an area which isn’t exposed to the direct
oncoming air flow the scoop has access to. Quite often NACA ducts will be used along the sides
of a vehicle. The NACA duct takes advantage of the Boundary layer, a layer of slow moving air
that “clings” to the bodywork of the car, especially where the bodywork flattens, or does not
accelerate or decelerate the air flow. Areas like the roof and side body panels are good
examples. The longer the roof or body panels, the thicker the layer becomes (a source of drag
that grows as the layer thickens as well).

Diagram AD2. The NACA duct (named after the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) is a
specially shaped duct that pulls air from the boundary layer inside the vehicle.

The NACA duct scavenges this slower moving area by means of a specially shaped intake. The
intake shape, shown below in diagram AD2, drops in toward the inside of the bodywork, and this
draws the slow moving air into the opening at the end of the NACA duct. Vortices are also
generated by the “walls” of the duct shape, aiding in the scavenging. The shape and depth
change of the duct are critical for proper operation.

Typical uses for NACA ducts include engine air intakes and cooling.

Spoilers

Spoilers are used primarily on sedan-type race cars and road cars to provide downforce, but also
to counteract the natural tendency of these cars to become “light” in the rear due to lift generated
by the rear body shape.

Spoilers act like barriers to air flow, in order to build up higher air pressure in front of the spoiler.
This higher pressure acts upon the area of the trunk/deck to provide downforce. Diagram AD3
below shows how the flow is manipulated to increase pressure.
 Diagram AD3. The spoiler creates a barrier that increases air pressure and flow attachment ahead
of it.

Front Air Dam

A Front air dam is used to prevent air from flowing underneath a vehicle. It does this by creating
a “dam” or wall across the front of the vehicle that extends close down to the road and usually
along the sides to some extent. This creates an area of vacuum or low pressure underneath the
car as shown in diagram AD4 below. This low pressure area, in combination with the higher
pressures above the front and top of the vehicle, generates downforce at the front of the vehicle.
 Diagram AD4. The front air dam blocks air from going under the vehicle. This creates a low
pressure area immediately behind the air dam. Which provides downforce. However, without side
skirts, air soon enters from the sides to equalize the pressure underneath the car which
diminishes downforce further back.

If we extend the air dam along the sides of the vehicle to become “skirts”, we can extend the
vacuum or low pressure area generated under the vehicle by the air dam as well.

Use Aerodynamics to Assist Vehicle Operation

Using vehicle bodywork to direct airflow into openings, for instance, permits more efficient,
smaller openings that reduce drag penalties. Quite often, with some forethought, you can gain an
advantage over a competitor by these small dual purpose techniques.

Another useful technique is to use the natural high and low pressure areas created by the
bodywork to perform functions. For instance, Mercedes, back in the 1950s placed radiator outlets
in the low pressure zone behind the driver. The air inlet pressure which fed the radiator became
less critical, as the low pressure outlet area literally sucked air through the radiator.

A useful high pressure area is in front of the car, and to make full use of this area, the nose of the
car is often slanted downward. This allows the higher air pressure to push down on the nose of
the car, increasing grip. It also has the advantage of permitting greater driver visibility.
Keep Protrusions Away From The Bodywork

The smooth airflow achieved by proper bodywork design can be destroyed quite easily if a
protrusion such as a mirror is too close to it. While it is important to design an aerodynamic
mount for a mirror, the mirror itself needs to be placed far enough away from the bodywork to
avoid adverse affects.

Wings

Probably the most popular form of aerodynamic device is the wing. Wings can perform very
efficiently by generating a lot of downforce for a small penalty in drag. Spoilers are not nearly as
efficient, but because of their practicality they are used a lot on sedans where wings are less
efficient.

Diagram AD5. Wings generate downforce by a pressure difference between the top and bottom
surfaces.
The wing, as shown in diagram AD5 above, generates downforce by using the difference in air
pressure between the top and bottom surfaces. This air pressure difference results from the way
the air flows around the wing shape.

According to Bernoulli’s principle, the higher the speed of a given volume of air, the lower the
pressure that air will have. Therefore to create lower air pressure, we need to speed up the air
flow.

A wing does this by making the air molecules travel different distances from the leading edge to
the trailing edge. The longer underside of the wing requires the air flowing on that side to move at
a higher speed (lower pressure) to meet up with the air flowing at a lower speed (higher
pressure) over the top side of the wing.

The lower pressure area under the wing allows the higher pressure area above the wing to
“push” down on the wing, and hence the vehicle it’s mounted to. The angle of attack or wing
angle can be increased to enable even larger pressure differences, but eventually the wing will
stall and lose downforce. Drag also increases with higher angles of attack.

Downforce can be increased even more without stalling the wing by using multi-element wings
that position one or more small wings behind a larger wing. In his book “Race Car Aerodynamics:
Designing for Speed“, Joseph Katz provides a Coefficient of pressure plot with an overlaid
multi-element wing profile, shown in diagram AD6, below. The positioning of the elements is
critical, with gaps between the wing elements “feeding” the low pressure side of the smaller
wings.

NOTE: The wing in the diagram is shown “upside down” compared to how it would be mounted
on a race car. The diagram is meant to plot negative pressure coefficients from the front to the
rear (the Chord) of the wing (x/c)
 Diagram AD6. Pressure coefficients (Cp) of a multi-element wing. Diagram from Joseph Katz’s
book “Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed”. Each successive element is positioned with
precision to complement and harness the flow from the previous element. © Bentley Publishers

Wings can be coupled with endplates to prevent high pressure air spilling over the ends to the
low pressure underside. Diagram AD7 below shows a wing with endplates:
 Diagram AD7. Wing endplates prevent high pressure air (on top) from migrating over the ends of
the wing to the low pressure side (on bottom)

Venturi Tunnels

Venturi tunnels, much the like a venturi tube observed in a laboratory, use the constriction of a
flow to generate high speed, low air pressure areas under the race car. In diagram AD8 below,
we show a car with a venturi tunnel, and below that a similar venturi tube you might see in a lab.

Diagram AD8. The Venturi tunnel shape increases the velocity of the mass of air flowing through
it, lowering the pressure and generating downforce.

On race vehicles, the venturi is usually formed by making the undertray of the vehicle shaped like
an inverted wing. The distance between the undertray and the road forms a constriction and then
expands to enable the low pressure created by the constriction to act along the middle and rear
and of the vehicle. Venturis are very efficient devices but are susceptible to changes in vehicle
ride height.
Diffusers

A diffuser, shown in diagram AD9 below, is used to generate downforce at the rear of a vehicle.
Similar to a venturi tunnel, it forms a curvature similar to the underside of a wing immediately
before the low pressure area behind the vehicle. By doing so, the air flowing under the vehicle
increases in speed and drops in pressure, creating downforce. Diffusers and venturi tunnels
leverage the low pressure area behind the vehicle, and can sometimes leverage high speed
exhaust gases ejected into the diffuser to create even lower pressure.

Diagram AD9. The diffuser uses the underside of the car body to mimic the underside of a wing.
The diffuser’s expanding opening creates a low pressure area under the rear of the car that
generates downforce.

Rake the chassis

The chassis, as mentioned in the aerodynamics theory section above, is capable of being slightly
lower to the ground in the front than in the rear. The lower “Nose” of the car reduces the volume
of air able to pass under the car, and the higher “Tail” of the car creates an expanding space
where a vacuum effect can form. This lowers the air pressure beneath the car, creating
downforce.

Cover or streamline Exposed Wishbones

Exposed wishbones (on open wheel cars) are often made from circular steel tube to save cost.
However, these circular tubes generate turbulence. It may be worth considering the use of oval
tubing, or a tube fairing that creates an oval shape over top of the round tubing. See diagram
AT1 below:
Diagram AT1. Streamlined wishbone tubing improves the smoothness of the air flow to parts of
the car behind and reduces drag,
Car Handling Basics, How-To & Design Tips

Track width

Track width, as shown in diagram TW1 below, is the width of the car, measured between the
centers of the tire contact patches. The track width is important because it determines how much
weight is transferred by the mass of the car in cornering.

Diagram TW1. Track width is the measurement between the centerlines of the tires when viewed
from the front or rear of the vehicle

Wheelbase

The wheelbase of a vehicle, as shown in diagram WB1 below, is the distance between the front
and rear wheels, measured at the centers of the wheels. The wheelbase is important, because it
determines the weight transferred by the mass of the car in acceleration and braking as well as
the yaw characteristics in turning.
 Diagram WB1. Wheelbase is a measurement of the distance between the centers of the front and
rear wheels when viewed from the side.

CG Location

Knowing the weight distribution, front to rear and left to right, we can pinpoint where the CG
(Center of gravity is located along the length (Longitudinal) and width (Lateral) of the car. The CG
indicates the point that you could balance the car on if you were to jack it up underneath that
point. With the example above, the CG would be located approximately as shown in Diagram
SWD3 below:
 Diagram SWD3. The lateral and longitudinal Center of Gravity (CG) location

CG Height

Static weight distribution is just a 2D (Two-dimensional) concept, until we take into account the
height from the ground of the same components described above. The CG height is determined
by where the mass of the vehicle components are located vertically.

In example diagram CG1 below, the car on the right has been lowered, so the engine, body,
driver, and all other components are lower to the ground (CG Height “Y”) than the those in the
car on the left (CG Height “X”):
 Diagram CG1. Center of Gravity (CG) height from the ground

Any vehicle that wants to turn at high speeds is usually as close to the ground as its intended
road surface will allow. We’ll see why next in “Weight transfer”.

Handling Tips (1/2)

For all vehicles

● Minimize CG height
● Keep static weight distribution as balanced as possible (front/rear, and left/right). Later
tuning will be easier than working with a large imbalance.
● Unless the surface is very slippery, reducing weight transfer in cornering usually gives
more traction
● In cases where the surface is slippery, a higher CG or narrower track width will aid in
transferring weight to outside wheels to give more “bite”. Narrower tires may also aid in
this situation.
● Optimize Polar moment of inertia by packaging components as near as possible to the
CG.

Understeer/Oversteer

When a car runs out of grip at the front of the car while turning a corner, it is said to have
“Understeer”. As shown in Diagram OU1 below, it is essentially turning less than it should
because its front tires have reached the limit of their traction before the rear tires reach theirs.
 Diagram OU1. Understeering car

When a car runs out of grip at the rear of the car while turning a corner, it is said to have
“Oversteer”. It is essentially turning more than it should because its rear tires have reached the
limit of their traction before the front tires reach theirs.
 Diagram OU2. Oversteering car.

As discussed above, both these conditions are the result of how much weight is being transferred
from the inside “unloaded” tires to the outside “loaded” tires. If more weight transfers and overall
tire efficiency drops, overall grip at that end is reduced.

Handling Tips (2/2)

For circle track vehicles

● Biasing the weight to the inside will reduce weight transfer to outside, increasing
overall traction
● Use stagger and offset to aid turn in and weight transfer
For road course vehicles

● Having a balanced front/rear and left/right weight distribution will provide an optimal
starting point for tuning the handling of a road course vehicle. If the static weight
distribution is too imbalanced, more effort will be required to make the vehicle behave
in a predictable manner.

Car Suspension Basics, How-To & Design

Tips
The suspension on a vehicle serves multiple purposes:

● It provides a stable platform from which to control the vehicle

● It provides a way to isolate the chassis and driver from the shocking jolts that the tires
experience going over anything but a glass-smooth surface.
● It provides a way to keep all the vehicle’s tires in contact with an uneven surface.
● It provides damping of oscillations that rubber tires, springs and uneven surfaces
naturally create.

Many versions of suspension have been created over time to resolve deficiencies, but in general
they all seek to control the movement of the tires in three ways:

1. Laterally – Controlling side-to-side movement

2. Longitudinally – Controlling forward/backward movement
3. Vertically – Controlling up and down movement

Suspensions accomplish this using links and structures that locate the wheels/tires in a specific
“geometry” relative to the vehicle. The geometry dictates the behavior the tires/wheel and
chassis exhibit when accelerating, braking and turning.
Suspension Components
Let’s have a look at the components that make up a suspension.

Tires

As the first point of contact with the road, the tires work in conjunction with the suspension
geometry and weight transfer dynamics to provide grip. Many different types of tires exist, but
every tire relies upon its contact patch with the road (Shown in diagram T1 below) to create the
friction needed. Generally, the larger the contact patch, the larger the amount of friction created.

Diagram T1. Tire contact patch which contacts the road surface

The grip provided by a tire is also based on the coefficient of friction (Cf) of the rubber compound
and the tire’s construction (Radial/bias). This coefficient indicates the lateral grip the tire is
capable of providing for a given weight being placed on it. A Cf of 1.0 means it is capable of
providing 1 lb of lateral grip for 1 lb of vertical load on it.

Racing slicks (tires with no tread) are very high Cf tires, in the range of 1.0 or more. Street
(treaded) radials, on the other hand, rarely even approach a 1.0 Cf. If you were to place 500 lbs
weight onto a tire with a Cf of 1.0, you could expect 500 lbs (actually a little less) of lateral grip.
Without aerodynamic aids to add to apply further weight to the tire, the vehicle could almost
achieve a 1G turn.
Wheels

The wheel is what the tire mounts on and each type of wheel has its own particular
characteristics depending on its width, diameter and construction materials.

The primary types of wheels used on cars are alloy and steel.

Alloy wheels can be constructed to very minimal weights, as alloying materials such as aluminum
and magnesium can be used. They are also generally much more expensive than their steel
counterparts, but they also lack the dent resistance of steel wheels. An alloy wheel, when struck
by a curb will sometimes shatter and crack. Nonetheless, for most motorsports series and street
vehicles, alloys are the choice.

Steel wheels can also be constructed to very low weights and their cost is quite a bit less than
the alloys, due mostly to lower cost construction. Steel wheels are deformable when struck, and
will usually allow air to leak out of the tire, as opposed to shattering. NASCAR and the general
stock car scene use steel wheels due to the extreme forces encountered.

Wheels, aside from their width and diameter, have an important design characteristic called
“Offset”.

In the wheel/tire cutaway diagram WH1 below, the sample wheel shows a red line that
represents the mounting face for the wheel—the face with the lug holes that we bolt onto the hub
of the vehicle.

The yellow dotted line represents centerline of the wheel and “Zero offset” from the centerline. If
we move the mounting face toward the vehicle, as show on the left in the diagram, we create
“Negative Offset”. If we move the mounting face away from the vehicle, as shown on the right in
the diagram, we would create “Positive Offset”

Offset is important in relation to the design of the upright/knuckle, as it determines scrub radius
(see more info below).
 Diagram WH1. Wheel offset is the distance, positive or negative from the wheel center line when
viewed from the front.

Brakes

It goes without saying that while the gas pedal on your car is the preferred pedal to push, the
brakes are of vital importance as well.

Two types of brakes are available—Disc and drum. Both types use friction to turn the kinetic
energy of the moving vehicle into heat. What makes one type of brake better than the other is the
effectiveness of each type in dissipating or shedding the heat generated. Too much heat and the
brake pad/shoe material will generate less friction, leading to what is termed “Brake fade”.

The disc brake, shown in diagram B1 below, produces more reliable stopping power under racing
or hard-driving conditions because its rotor (the surface against which the brake pad generates
friction and heat) is exposed to the air flow. This dissipates heat to the open air quickly.
 Diagram B1. Disc brake

A disc brake system works as shown in figure B2 below. The driver presses the brake pedal,
which forces a piston in the master cylinder to compress the brake fluid (Yellow). The fluid runs
inside a brake line to the caliper (Green) where two pistons (Blue) with attached brake pads
(Red) are forced against the spinning brake rotor (Grey), generating friction and slowing the
brake rotor and its attached wheel.
 Diagram B2. Hydraulic disc brake system showing a cross-section of the master cylinder and
caliper.

The drum brake, shown in figure B3 below, utilizes semi-circular shoes that are forced against
the inside of the brake drum by a slave cylinder.
 Diagram B3. Drum brake

With the brakes released, there is a small air-gap space between the shoes and the drum as
shown in figure B4 below.

Diagram B4. The drum brake, when released, leaves an air gap between the shoes and drum.
 Diagram B5. The drum brake, when engaged, pushes the shoes against the drum creating the
friction that turns kinetic energy into heat energy.

With the shoes engaged as shown in figure B5 above, the brake creates high levels of stopping
power through large amounts of friction. However, because the drum is “closed” compared to the
exposed rotor on the disc brake, more heat is retained, which leads to brake fade sooner.

Diagram B6 below shows a drum brake in a hydraulic system. The driver presses the brake
pedal, which forces a piston in the master cylinder to compress the brake fluid (Yellow). The fluid
runs inside a brake line to slave cylinder (Blue) which contains two pistons (Pink). These pistons
are attached to the brake shoes (Red/light blue). The pistons force the brake shoes against the
drum (Green), generating friction and slowing the brake drum and its attached wheel.
 Diagram B6. Hydraulic drum brake system showing a cross-section of the master cylinder and
drum assembly.

Drum brakes are cheaper to manufacture and are generally used in conjunction with a live axle.
However, disc brakes are the preferred for any type of race or sports car where they can be fitted
as they have less mass and better cooling.

Suspension Design Tips (1/4)

Minimize Unsprung weight

Unsprung weight, or the weight comprised by tire, wheel and suspension affects how well the tire
follows the bumps and dips in the road surface. Using lighter wheels, tires, and suspension
components will reduce the weight. The weight of these suspension components by itself is not
so critical as the ratio between the vehicle’s sprung weight (chassis, driver, engine, etc) and the
unsprung weight. The lower the unsprung weight in relation to the sprung weight, the easier it will
be to control the tire/wheel via the springs, dampers (shocks) and anti-roll bars.
Knuckles/Uprights

The upright or knuckle attaches the wheel, brake rotor, hub, brake caliper and steering arm to the
vehicle as shown in diagram KU1 below. The upright also locates these components in space.

The design of the upright or knuckle determines the geometry on the “outboard” side of the
suspension. (The mount points on the chassis and wishbones/links form the “inboard” side of the
suspension, and provide their own contribution to the overall geometry of the suspension.)

Diagram KU1 shows an example of an independent wishbone suspension that is not driven. The
upright (Yellow) is attached to the vehicle using the upper and lower wishbones which have ball
joints or rod-ends. This allows the upright to move vertically and to rotate about the king pin axis
(See below).

Integrated into or attached to the upright is the spindle. Bearings (Orange) are inserted into the
hub (Red) and it is slid over the spindle and held in place by a retaining nut. The brake disc
(Blue) slides over the lugs (Threaded bolts) extending from the hub. The brake caliper (Light
blue) is attached to the upright using a bracket.

Controlling the steering or toe angle of the upright is the steering/toe link which has a rod end
that fastens to an arm (Purple) on the upright.
 Diagram KU1. Side and top views of a non-driven upright/knuckle within an independent wishbone
suspension.

Diagram KU2 shows an example of an independent wishbone suspension for a driven wheel. As
with the non-driven version, the upright (Yellow) is attached to the vehicle using the upper and
lower wishbones which have ball joints or rod-ends. This allows the upright to move vertically and
to rotate about the king pin axis (See below).

In order to drive the wheel, a half-shaft or driveshaft (Gold) extends from the chassis and uses a
CV joint to enable suspension movement while driving the wheel. A splined shaft (Green)
extends from the CV joint and passes through the upright. Two bearings (Orange) are used to
support the shaft inside the upright. The hub (Red) slides over the spline on the shaft and is
secured using a nut.

The brake disk (Blue) then slides over the lugs extending from the hub. The brake caliper (Light
blue) is attached to the upright using a bracket.
Controlling the steering or toe angle of the upright is the steering/toe link which has a rod end
that fastens to an arm (Purple) on the upright.

Diagram KU2. Side and top views of a driven upright/knuckle within an independent wishbone
suspension and half-shaft/cv-joint combination.

Wishbones/Links

Wishbones, links and axles connect the previously mentioned upright or knuckle to the car
chassis. Depending on suspension type, they behave in different ways, but always with the goals
of controlling lateral, longitudinal and vertical motion of the wheels.

Wishbones look just like the name suggests. Diagram WL1 below shows a wishbone highlighted
in yellow.
 Diagram WL1. Wishbone (Also sometimes referred to as an A-Arm)

Links (sometimes called radius rods) are rods that are used to enable the wheel to move in a
particular axis. Diagram WL2 below shows how a live axle uses links to control its movement.
The parallel rods allow the wheels to move up and down. The lateral rod controls lateral
movement of the axle.

Diagram WL2. Links and Radius rods locate the axle in space and control movement.

Axles

Axles are used to connect the left and right wheels at the front or rear of the vehicle. One of the
oldest ways of suspending a vehicle, the axles as shown below have been used extensively on
road cars and trucks and on race cars, especially those based on production vehicles.
Diagram AX1 below shows a driven live axle. This axle is used primarily at the rear of a
rear-drive vehicle. The differential accepts power through an input shaft, and transfers it through
the axle shafts to the wheels. The axle shafts are housed inside of axle tubes which provide
protection from the environment and the strength needed to support a vehicle chassis. The axle
shafts connect to hubs at either end and these in turn mount the wheels and tires. As shown
above in diagram SC2, the live axle uses links and springs/dampers to connect to the chassis.

Diagram AX1. Live axle with differential.

Diagram AX2 below shows a beam axle, which can be used as a rear axle in front-wheel drive
vehicles or as a front axle in rear wheel drive vehicles. It uses a simple beam that attaches to the
chassis through links and springs/dampers. At the ends of the beam can be steerable
knuckles/hubs (for a front axle) or non-steerable hubs (for a rear axle.). In the example AX2
below, the beam has stub axles at it ends to which hubs are mounted on bearings.

Diagram AX2. Beam axle with freely spinning hubs mounted on stub axles.
Diagram AX3 below shows a go-kart axle, which uses a one piece shaft without a differential.
This is the “Simplest” of axle types, and consists of a single hollow tube or solid rod supported by
bearings which are housed in supports that attach to the chassis. To the ends of the axle are
affixed hubs for mounting wheels/tires. Mid-mounted on the axle is a sprocket hub to which a
chain sprocket is bolted and driven by the go-kart motor.

Diagram AX3. The kart axle is a single piece tube supported by bearings. A drive sprocket and
wheel hubs are mounted to the axle.

Due to the single axle, the inside wheel travels at the same speed as the outside even when
going around corners. This would normally have a detrimental effect on turning because the rear
wheels would push at the same speed in a straight line while the front wheels are trying to turn.
Go-karts get around this problem by lifting the inside rear wheel in corners using a special front
suspension geometry. The inside rear wheel is spinning above the road while the kart is turning.

Maximize Aerodynamics

On vehicles where the suspension is exposed and speeds are high, moving components under
bodywork and streamlining those still left exposed can provide an advantage.

Use Scrub Radius For Feel

The feel of what the tires are doing in relation to the road is transmitted through the suspension,
into the chassis and steering, and finally to the driver. Scrub radius helps this feel by providing
feedback from the contact patch.

With a small amount of scrub radius, the tire is turned about the kingpin axis, slightly offset from
the tire’s centerline. This creates a small tire/road friction resistance that in turn translates into
feedback from the road. The scrub radius can enable the driver to feel when the tires lose
traction, without being “too far gone” to recover.

Steering

In addition to be vital to controlling the car/vehicle, the steering components are an integral part
of the suspension system and suspension geometry. As shown previously in Diagrams KU1 &
KU2 in the Knuckles/Uprights section, the upright or knuckle has attached to it a “Toe Link” or
“Steering Link” that controls the angle of the wheel/tire. This steering link needs to connect to the
steering system to enable the driver to change the steering angle and turn the car.

There are two primary types of steering systems—Rack and pinion and Recirculating Ball. The
Rack and Pinion system is pictured below in diagram ST1. In a rack and pinion system, there is a
flat gear (the “Rack”) shown in yellow. Attached to the ends of the rack are rod-ends which
connect to the steering links.

Diagram ST1. Rack and pinion steering system. The steering links connect to wheel
uprights/knuckles.
Meshed to the rack is a circular gear (the “Pinion”) which is attached to the steering wheel via a
shaft. When the driver turns the steering wheel, the pinion gear turns and moves the rack either
left or right. This in turn moves the steering links left or right and because they are connected to
the upright/knuckle, the wheel and tire change their angle.

The advantage of rack and pinion is its simplicity and light weight, both of which are desirable in
a race or sports car’s design. The Recirculating Ball system is more compact than the
rack-and-pinion, but it is usually heavier. Some vehicles use Recirculating Ball, especially
production-based trucks and cars.

Steering systems can also come with power-assist which provides most of the effort to steer the
vehicle. Power assist is provided by a hydraulic pump driven by the engine. When the driver
turns the wheel, valves within the steering system use the hydraulic pressure to assist in moving
the steering gears.

Despite making the driver’s job easier, the use of power assist has been noted to reduce the
“feel” feedback of the vehicle’s handling through the steering system. Power-assist also adds
weight, but despite this, it should be considered for vehicles where steering effort is large or the
duration of racing or driving is long (i.e. Endurance).

Suspension Characteristics and Geometry

Unsprung Weight

Unsprung weight is a measurement of the weight of everything outboard of the wishbones or

suspension links, plus 1/2 of the weight of the wishbones or links and spring/shock. It therefore
usually includes the tire, wheel, brake, knuckle/upright and 1/2 of the suspension
links/wishbones. It has a significant effect on handling. Diagram UW1 below demonstrates why
unsprung weight is so important:

Diagram UW1. Unsprung weight is best kept to a minimum to avoid upsetting the balance of the
vehicle.
As the diagram shows, the more weight outboard of the car, the more force a bump will exert on
the suspension (and ultimately the chassis). The unsprung weight on the left is 30 lbs (13.6 kg)
and when the tire encounters a 2G (2 x gravity) bump, it applies 60 lbs (27.2 kg) of vertical force
into the suspension. Even worse, the unsprung weight of the suspension on the right is 50 lbs
(22.7 kg) and when the tire encounters a 2G bump, it applies 100 lbs (45.4 kg) of vertical force.

This force is handled using springs, dampers and anti-roll bars, but inevitably the force is
transmitted into the chassis. Therefore, the more “upward” force, the more difficult it is to keep
the tire planted on the road. This is especially true of lighter weight cars. In the example above, if
the car weighs 1000 lbs (454 kg), a 2G bump would result in a vertical force of 10% of the car’s
weight.

This will at the very least reduce the grip of the car because the upward inertia created by the
bump will reduce the weight on the tire briefly after encountering the bump. As the vertical load
on the tire dictates how much traction it produces, some traction will be lost.

Kingpin Inclination

Kingpin Inclination provides steering feel and affects the effort required to steer the car. In the
front view diagram KP1 below, the red line on the right represents the center line of the
tire/wheel. The red line on the left represents the kingpin inclination line, which runs through the
upright/knuckle attachment points. The angular difference between the two red lines is the angle
of the kingpin inclination.

Diagram KP1. Kingpin inclination

Scrub Radius

Scrub radius is the distance from the centerline of the tire/wheel to where the kingpin line
intersects with the road surface. The larger the distance, the more effort is required to turn the
wheel, as the tire has to “scrub” slightly to turn around the kingpin axis. Diagram SR1 below
shows a red dimension to indicate the scrub radius.

Diagram SR1. Scrub radius

Camber

Camber is the angle between vertical (90° perpendicular to a flat road surface) and the “lean” of
the tire/wheel. In diagram CAM1 below, negative camber of about 2 or 3 degrees is shown.
Depending on the suspension type, camber can change as the wheel/tire rises and falls with
suspension movement. If the geometry of the suspension is well designed, the camber change
will be optimized to keep the contact patch of the tire as large as possible, providing the most
grip possible. Generally speaking, the contact patch and grip begin to decrease as soon as the
camber exceeds a small amount, either positive or negative.
 Diagram CAM1. Wheel camber

Toe In/Out

Toe-In or Toe-out is a slight angle of a wheel/tire measured from a line running longitudinally
(along the length of the vehicle). Diagram T1 below shows an exaggerated version of toe from a
perspective of looking down onto the wheel/tire from above. Toe-in has the wheel/tire steering
slightly toward the center of the vehicle. Toe-out has the wheel/tire steering slightly away from the
vehicle center.
 Diagram T1. Toe. The amount of toe is changed via a toe link (if fixed) or steering link (if steered)

Toe-in/out can be used to offset the natural change in toe position caused braking and
acceleration and to assist a vehicle with corner turn-in.

Caster

Caster is the angle, measured from vertical (90° perpendicular to a flat road surface), of a line
that runs through the mounting points of the upright/knuckle, when viewing the wheel/tire from
the side. Diagram CAS1 below shows the Caster line running through the upright mount points.
 Diagram CAS1. Caster

This angle is used to create a gyroscopic effect on steering. This can be demonstrated by turning
the steering wheel in a vehicle and then letting go of the wheel. The caster causes the steering to
correct itself back to straight ahead, instead of turning, without the need for driver input.

Suspension Design Tips (3/4)

Use strong high-quality hardware

Suspension components, especially fasteners and rod ends can be expensive. However, they
are absolutely critical not only to safety, but success. You should use best practices for joint
design–Using a good component in a poorly mounted way is no better than using a poor
component in the first place. Strength and durability requirements should always be considered
relative to the vehicle and anticipated loads.
Suspension Types
There are dozens of variations of suspension types used on race and passenger vehicles.
Depending on the type of racing (for race cars), the road surface and evolution of the vehicles,
the suspension is designed to accommodate multiple requirements. Each suspension type has
its advantages and disadvantages—let’s take a look at a few of the primary types and their pros
and cons.

Front Suspension Types

Beam Axle Suspension

The beam axle is just as its name would suggest—It is a beam or tube connecting the two front
wheels. As shown in diagram BA1, connections to the chassis are provided by link rods (in red)
which allow for vertical movement of the suspension and a lateral locating link rod (in yellow) that
prevents lateral movement of the axle while still enabling vertical movement. The links are
usually “Leading” links as they attach to the chassis behind the front beam axle tube.

This type of suspension provides simplicity and generally low construction costs. It lends itself
well to adjusting the offset of the wheels relative to the chassis, which is useful in circle track
racing. It is used today primarily in Sprint and Midget cars and in pickup trucks.

Diagram BA1. Beam axle front suspension

Beam axles excel in two areas: their ability to maintain zero camber during body roll and their
ability to provide high strength. Unfortunately, the strength comes at a price of extra weight. The
way the beam axle connects to the chassis has a big impact on how this suspension behaves.
For instance, steering angle can change with things like road bumps if the linkage is not
designed to be neutral during suspension movement. If appropriately designed, these challenges
can be largely overcome.

Strut Suspension

Many production cars (especially if they have Front-drive) use the MacPherson strut suspension.
The design uses a lower A-arm and the spring/shock absorber to connect the upright/knuckle to
the vehicle. Both parts provide lateral and longitudinal locating while still permitting vertical
movement. They are simple and relatively low cost to construct which is why Macpherson strut
suspensions are used on many economy cars. However this suspension type does suffer from
some disadvantages.

Diagram SS1 below shows the basic suspension layout:

Diagram SS1. MacPherson Strut Suspension

If you put wide tires on a MacPherson strut suspension, the scrub radius increases, which in turn
increases not only the overall steering effort required, but also the loading on suspension
members that can lead to damage.

This suspension design also requires more vertical height to the suspension packaging due to
the strut/shock, which won’t work for some vehicle designs.
Unequal Length Double Wishbone

As its name aptly describes, the unequal length double wishbone suspension, shown in diagram
UEL1 below, consists of two wishbones of different lengths (The top is shorter) connected to the
chassis inboard and the upright/knuckle outboard. With a good top/bottom wishbone geometry
and good upright/knuckle design, this suspension type maximizes the tire contact patch by
gaining camber as the vehicle body rolls. It also eliminates most of the behavior problems of
other suspension designs, making it desirable when precise handling is required.

Diagram UEL1. Unequal length wishbone independent front suspension showing the steering link
(blue)

The price paid for such a design is increased cost to construct, but for racing and sports cars it is
very much worth the additional cost.

Rear Suspension Types

Live Axle

Used extensively in the past on rear wheel drive passenger vehicles, the Live Axle continues to
be used because of its strength and simplicity. The basic design shown in diagram LA1 below
uses a tube which joins the two rear wheels. In the middle is a differential that apportions power
to each wheel. As with the beam axle, links or leaf springs are used to join the axle to the
chassis, allowing vertical movement and controlling longitudinal and lateral movement. However,
in rear axle situations, the links are usually considered “Trailing” (They mount to the chassis in
front of the axle)
 Diagram LA1. Live axle rear suspension

Diagram LA2. Hotchkiss-type live axle rear suspension.

Several sub-types of Live Axle suspension exist, with each differentiated by the way they connect
to the chassis and the approach they use to managing suspension behavior.
Hotchkiss Drive suspensions (as shown above in diagram LA2 above) use leaf springs to locate
the axle and support the vehicle. Separate shocks are used to dampen oscillations.

Link suspensions (Diagram LA1) use links that allow suspension movement vertically, but limit
that movement longitudinally (front-back) and laterally (left-right).

Torque arms suspensions use a long arm compared with link type suspensions, which enables
the torque applied to the axle to be controlled in a different manner.

All these sub-types (and more) essentially try to keep the wheels planted on the ground, as free
of oscillations and wheel hop as possible, and as straight and true with the direction of the
vehicle as possible.

Unequal Length Double Wishbone

Just as with front suspension, the unequal length double wishbone suspension can be used for
rear wheels. The flexibility in the design of the suspension geometry allows the rear suspension
to be matched to the front suspension, and each wheel tuned independently.

When used as a driving wheels suspension, the upright/knuckle is connected to a half drive shaft
(As shown below in diagram UEL2) with an outboard CV (Constant velocity) joint that rises and
falls with the wheel.

Diagram UEL2. Unequal length wishbone independent rear suspension showing a toe link and
half-shaft/CV-joint outboard.
Suspension Design Tips (4/4)

Protect the driver from the suspension

In vehicles where wheels and suspension can enter the vehicle when broken (i.e. Driver situated
beside suspension mounts), safety can be increased through anti-intrusion panels that will
deflect broken wishbones or links.

Radial vs. Bias ply tires and Camber

Radial tires are more tolerant of static negative camber, or camber that is built into the
suspension. If the suspension’s range of motion is substantial (more than 2 or 3 inches of bump
travel, and 2 or 3 inches of dip), then using more negative camber to compensate for a positive
change introduced by the suspension helps. Radial tires will work better with this situation.

Car Powertrain Basics, How-To & Design

Tips
The powertrain of a vehicle provides the means of generating power (the engine) and the means
of transmitting that power to the wheels (the driveline). The most basic powertrain consists of an
engine plus various driveline components as required for the particular powertrain configuration.

These include components for torque multiplication (Transmission/Transaxle/Differential), power

transmission (Shafts, chains, belts), and power distribution (Rear End/Differential).

Engine Configurations
The engine configuration of the car has a big impact on weight distribution. It also dictates the
driveline requirements, which in turn affect weight distribution as well. Weight distribution tends to
be front-biased in production-based vehicles, so achieving a balance requires moving
components to the rear of the car. In scratch-built cars, the engine tends to be moved further
rearward, cancelling the front weight bias.
 Diagram EC1. Front Engine Layout.

The front engine configuration, as shown in diagram EC1 above, has historically been the most
popular configuration in road and race vehicles and continues to be the dominant configuration in
production-based vehicles. Weight distribution tends to be front-biased in production-based
vehicles, so achieving a balance requires moving components to the rear of the car.

Diagram EC2. Mid-Engine layout.

The mid-engine configuration, as shown in diagram EC2 above, became popular in the late
1950s and early 1960s on open wheel cars as the weight distribution and low polar moment of
inertia for the engine allowed more nimble cornering and balance. Prior to this, the pre-WWII
Auto Union Grand prix car featured this configuration.
 Diagram EC3. Rear Engine Layout

The rear engine configuration, shown in diagram EC3 above, is the least used of all types, but
has been used in two of the most popular road cars ever produced—The Volkswagen Beetle and
the Porsche 911. The configuration places engine weight behind the rear wheels which provides
more basic traction and weight transfer effect during acceleration. However, it reduces steering
traction under acceleration and has a high polar moment of inertia for the engine.

Drive Configurations
Getting power from the engine to the ground is the job of the driving wheels/tires. The static
weight distribution of the vehicle and the suspension geometry of the driving wheels has a major
impact on the grip and acceleration a car can provide. If the weight distribution and suspension
are not optimized to maximize grip, the vehicle will not perform at its peak.

Beyond the basic drive configuration, there are also components that should be considered
during design. For example, limited-slip differentials, that can optimize the way power is delivered
to the wheels and ensure it is not wasted on tires without grip.

Diagram DC1. Rear Wheel Drive Configuration has the advantage of superior traction from weight
transfer during acceleration (Over front wheel drive).
Rear wheel drive (RWD) (Diagram DC1 above) is the classic configuration for race cars and
trucks as well as many road cars prior to the 1980s. This configuration permits maximum weight
transfer to the driving wheels, no matter which engine configuration it is coupled with.

Diagram DC2. Front wheel drive configuration is used in some production-based race cars, and is
competitive when pitted against other front wheel drive vehicles.

Front wheel drive (FWD) has been popularized in modern road cars and is used in many
production-based race cars. The configuration, as shown in Diagram DC2 above, does create
some very desirable traits for daily-driven use, but has its drawbacks for racing purposes—Using
one set of tires to both steer and drive the vehicle limits available traction and creates understeer.
Upon acceleration, the weight transfer to the rear tires also unloads the front tires somewhat,
limiting acceleration grip.

That said, there are plenty of opportunities to race front wheel drive vehicles on a level playing
field, as when pitted against other front wheel drive machines.

Diagram DC3. Four wheel drive configuration provides immense traction during acceleration.

Four wheel drive (4WD) (Diagram DC3 above) is the dominant drive configuration for pickup
trucks and has become popular in road cars where the climate has snow or ice. Many sports cars
have made use of 4WD to create optimal acceleration. Some race cars, primarily Rally cars, use
this configuration. However the use of 4WD in other cars has largely depended on whether 4WD
is banned or not. Because all four wheels provide grip, the acceleration can be tremendous
especially if the weight transfer and suspension geometry maximizes the grip for all four tires
during acceleration. The penalty is having twice the drivetrain complexity and the potential of
more drivetrain failures.

Powertrain Configurations

Front Engine/Rear Drive

This configuration shown in diagram PC1 below can provide a nearly balanced front/rear static
weight distribution if the engine is placed behind the front wheel centerline and other components
are suitably located to offset the engine being in the front half of the vehicle.

From a maintenance perspective, the simplicity of the layout enables easy access to the
longitudinal engine, separate transmission and final drive (differential).

As weight transfer to the rear wheels occurs during acceleration, having that weight provide more
grip to the driving tires is a definite advantage to this configuration. The rear driving wheels can
also aid in steering the vehicle through power application, which is another reason it is favored in
sports and racing vehicle applications.

Applications: Autocross/Solo, Drag Racer (Production-Based), GT, Midget (Full Size), Midget
(Quarter), Off-road Truck, Pickup Truck (Scratch-built), Rally, Sprint (Full Size), Stock Car
(Scratch-built /Late Model), Stock Car (Production-Based), Street Rod, Supercar, Touring Car

Diagram PC1. Front Engine/Rear Wheel Drive Configuration reduces the packaging tightness
found in mid-engine/rear wheel drive configurations.
Front Small Engine/Rear Tractor Transaxle Drive

Rider mower racing has become a popular form of grassroots racing, both for its cost and relative
simplicity. The basic configuration is shown below in diagram PC2.

Diagram PC2. The front small engine/rear tractor transaxle drive powertrain presents some
interesting opportunities for building low-cost racing machines, not just lawnmower racers.

Rider mowers use vertical shaft commercial/industrial small engines usually in the 15 HP and
higher range. The engine’s output shaft drives a pulley which in conjunction with a “tension” or
“clutch” pulley, enables the engine to engage the drivetrain. The drivetrain consists of a transaxle
which is driven by a pulley.

The nature of stock rider mowers is not to go fast, but low cost and readily available small
engines and transaxles offer a base powertrain configuration to work from. The gearing internal
to the transaxles can be altered to increase output speed, while the pulley sizes used outside the
transaxle can be altered to increase input speed as well. With current rider mower racing
configurations, 60 mph (100 km/h) is theoretically possible with the right tire size and transaxle
modifications. This more than matches many 4-stroke Karts.

There are several benefits of the tractor transaxle and small commercial/industrial engine. First,
the engines can be purchased new for very reasonable money. The transaxles can also be
purchased new, and parts to increase their speed purchased off-the-shelf.

The transaxles come with up to 6-speed sequential shift through a linkage. The transaxles also
have integrated differentials and built-in axles that may work out-of-the-box for some novel race
vehicle designs.

Even though this configuration has been a Rider mower racing configuration to date, for an
amateur designer looking to build a competitive short track vehicle, this often overlooked
powertrain configuration might fit the bill.

Powertrain Tips (1/2)

Keep Powertrain Simple

Overly complicated and tightly packaged powertrain may make a lot of sense at top racing levels
or for exotics manufacturers, but for amateurs, the more difficult it is to maintain, reach and
repair, the less enjoyable you’ll find your machine.

Optimize Power

If you have multiple engine or tuning options, selecting the one with the best power and delivery
characteristics is of prime importance. Then, above and beyond the basic working powertrain,
there are small tweaks that can help give more power.

Designing air intakes to provide ram air effect to the engine, using high quality lubricants, and
removing unnecessary engine accessories that rob power are all basic ways to boost the
available horsepower. Look for areas where friction can be reduced and engine
breathing/combustion efficiency can be improved. You may find many small gains, but they do
add up.
Position Powertrain Components as Close to CG as Possible

The polar moment of inertia discussed elsewhere in our guide provides some insight into why
placing components close to the Center of Gravity (CG) of the vehicle is a good idea. Turning the
vehicle with components close to the CG is much easier than turning it with components placed
at the farthest distance from the CG. A good parallel is to think of swinging a short baseball bat
versus a long baseball bat. A lot more effort is needed to swing the long one.

Front Engine/Front Drive

Used in many modern production-based race cars and most road cars, the front engine/front
drive configuration shown in diagram PC2 below is generally at a disadvantage when placed on
a race track with front engine/rear drive cars of equal spec. This configuration, while still
potentially capable of a good static front/rear balance, requires the front tires to both steer and
provide drive. This reduces the overall traction available for turning and accelerating/braking
which in turn creates understeer.

The acceleration potential is also less than rear wheel drive configurations. As the weight shifts
off the front tires and onto the rear tires during acceleration, there is less grip to drive the vehicle
forward, which creates front wheel spin that hampers acceleration and increases tire wear.

However, front wheel drive cars generally have the advantage of being lower in cost than other
drive configurations due to the integrated packaging and they represent great value in racing
when matched against other front wheel drive machines.

Applications: AutoCross/Solo, Custom Street/Import, Rally, Touring Car

Diagram PC3. Front engine/front wheel drive powertrain configuration.

Front Engine/Four Wheel Drive

The vehicle in diagram PC3 below shows a front engine/4WD configuration. Four wheel drive
itself provides a significant advantage in acceleration, but adds additional weight and complexity
to the vehicle.

It can enhance braking through the use of engine braking, but overall grip available at the tire
contact patches will remain the same. The same situation exists for cornering. Four wheel drive
might help avoid oversteer by more evenly applying acceleration forces through all four wheels,
but the overall lateral and longitudinal grip remains the same.

The front engine combined with the 4WD driveline may bias the weight toward the front of
vehicle, but a balanced Front/rear distribution is still quite possible with rearward placement of
other components.

Applications: AutoCross/Solo, Dune Buggy, Off-road Truck, Pickup truck (Custom Off-road),
Rally, Supercar

Diagram PC3. Front engine/four wheel drive powertrain configuration. Maximum acceleration is
possible with all four wheels driving, but weight distribution and suspension design are still key to
putting down the power efficiently.

Mid-Engine/Rear Drive

The mid-mounted engine / rear drive configuration, demonstrated by the sample car in diagram
PC4 below, was pioneered for racing by Auto Union in the 1930s. At the time, the suspension,
handling and driving techniques were undeveloped but once those aspects were worked out, the
Auto Union cars became formidable race cars. This configuration continued in the late 1950s/60s
and today is the dominant configuration for formula cars and sports cars.

Mid-engine cars offer several distinct advantages: For lightweight racers, it is easier to achieve a
balanced front/rear weight distribution. By having the engine, transmission and final drive in close
proximity it also reduces weight because fewer and shorter components are needed to form the
driveline.
 Diagram PC4. Mid-Engine/Rear Wheel Drive powertrain configuration has multiple advantages
which enable it to handle very well.

By having the engine behind the driver, it also shortens the required length of the car and
reduces the height of the front bodywork, allowing the driver to sit lower, which in turn lowers CG.
The polar moment of inertia is reduced because the engine sits much closer to the CG point as
well. What these advantages add up to is a more nimble car—quicker to turn, brake and
accelerate.

Applications: Autocross/Solo, Custom Street/Import, Drag Racer (Junior Dragster), Drag Racer
(Scratch-Built), Dune Buggy, Formula (Non-wing), Formula (Winged), GT, Kart, Sport
Racer/Sports Prototype, Sprint (Micro), Supercar

Mid-Engine Motorcycle Engine/Rear Wheel Chain Drive

Although essentially the same configuration as described above, a common configuration for
amateur built race cars today uses a motorcycle engine coupled with a chain drive. See diagram
PC5 below.

The lightweight nature of the motorcycle engine and the integrated sequential gearbox present a
massive all-in-one value to amateur builders. The chain drive output rotation happens to also
coincide with the axle rotation, eliminating the need to route power through a 90 degree geared
differential.

Motorcycle engines are relatively low torque, high-revving power plants, which lend themselves
well to using small car parts such as Austin Mini differentials for the final drive. Horsepower
available can range up to 400 HP with turbo or supercharging, so the range of vehicles a
motorcycle engine can be used on is quite wide. The major drawback is the lack of a built-in
reverse gear.

This configuration enjoys almost universal use in Formula SAE and Formula Student projects.

Applications: Autocross/Solo, Drag Racer (Scratch-Built), Dune Buggy, Formula (Non-Wing),

Formula (Winged), Sports Racer/Sports Prototype, Sprint (Micro), Supercar
 Diagram PC5. Mid-mounted motorcycle engine with rear wheel chain drive. This powertrain is one
of the most popular for scratch builders because of the integrated engine/gearbox.

Mid-Engine/Four Wheel Drive

The mid-engine/4WD configuration pictured below in diagram PC6 does not gain any significant
advantage over the front-engine/4WD configuration. The static weight distribution is comparable,
with the mid-engine position making achieving a balanced front/rear weight distribution easier.
The four wheel drive system adds additional weight and complexity to the powertrain.

Acceleration is the biggest benefit of having 4WD, but there is little practical effect on braking
performance except if engine braking is used. The 4WD system can have a stabilizing effect in
turns when designed to counter acceleration oversteer.

The advantages of mid-engine layout noted above for Mid-engine/Rear drive also apply here as
well, except for the fact that a propeller/drive shaft runs from the transaxle to the front of the car.

Applications: GT, Off-road Truck, Rally, Supercar

 Diagram PC6. Supercar stuff. The mid-engine/four wheel drive powertrain is very popular for
ultra-high horsepower supercars and some race cars. It combines the advantages of the
mid-engine with the best available acceleration.

Rear Engine/Rear Drive

The rear engine/rear drive vehicle in diagram PC7 below demonstrates a configuration that has
been put to use in racing in rare, but successful cases such as the Porsche 911. This
configuration has the advantage of providing more weight transfer under acceleration than any
other configuration. However, due to the leverage created by placing the engine outside the
wheelbase, it has the negative side effect of reducing front wheel traction when under hard
acceleration. Cars that make use of such a configuration generally escape significant penalty
because they use lightweight engines and place the engine only a small distance past the rear
axle.

Applications: Autocross/Solo, Dune Buggy, GT, Supercar

Diagram PC7. Rear engine/rear wheel drive powertrain configuration. Unusual, but well-executed
by VW and Porsche. Using lightweight engines makes this configuration possible.

Rear Engine/Four Wheel Drive

Adding a four wheel drive drivetrain to the rear engine configuration provides a significant
increase in acceleration even with rear weight transfer, but the inherent handicap of placing the
engine outside the wheelbase still exists. However, as Porsche has demonstrated, the
configuration can be made to work well. The more compact wheelbase of the rear-engine design
also overcomes some of the polar moment and CG issues, when the static weight distribution is
done well.
 Diagram PC8. Rear engine/four wheel drive powertrain. The natural extension to the Rear
engine/rear drive concept, having more weight up front and more traction ensures better
performance.

Powertrain Tips (2/2)

Select Powertrain Components Before Designing the Chassis

While a basic conceptual drawing is needed to flesh-out your overall vehicle design, it is best to
select major powertrain components before proceeding much further. Consider that the design of
the chassis, overall weight distribution and suspension components all depend on the engine and
driveline selected. The approximate mass and power of the engine and the mass and loading of
the driveline are basic, but important starting points.

Maximize Powertrain Durability

As most powertrain components at any but the top levels of racing are purchased off-the-shelf,
the internal durability is probably something you won’t change. However, how components are fit
into the package of the vehicle can make a big difference. For example, keeping axle half-shafts
as close to in-line with the differential and uprights/knuckle CV joints on an independent
suspension will ensure less wear and tear on the CV joints, longer lifespan and therefore lower
costs.
Minimize Engine and Drivetrain Weight and CG Height

The lower and lighter a car is, the faster it will go. Having an engine capable of being placed low
in the chassis will have a large impact on final performance. If the engine itself is lighter, than the
excess weight you’ve saved can be used as ballast at the lowest possible CG height in the car.

Minimize Outboard Weight

The unsprung weight of the suspension can be reduced if outboard driveline components are
optimized for weight. For example, on an independent suspension, the longer the length of the
half-shafts used to reach the wheels, the stronger they will need to be. This means more mass
and more strength is required, which adds to unsprung weight.

Car Driver Ergonomics Basics, How-To &

Design Tips
Ergonomics, or the study of human-machine interfacing, is important to vehicle design because
the ultimate control of the vehicle belongs to the driver. When designing this “interface” between
person and machine, several aspects should be taken into account so that the best system of
control is produced.

Seating Position/Field of View

A key input to the interface is the driver’s vision and that of any co-driver (i.e. Rally). The field of
view, as shown in diagrams SP1 and SP2 below, should include visibility ahead and to the sides
of the vehicle (Approximately 180 degree arc–more is even better) and visibility of the road
surface.

The driver needs a sufficient level of information about the nature of the oncoming road surface
and what is occurring beside them through peripheral vision to drive confidently. If the driver must
strain their neck to see enough to feel confident, their field of view is inadequate.
 Diagram SP1. Forward and side field of view should be at least 180 degrees. Even more is useful
as the driver can turn their head slightly to pickup competitors in their peripheral vision.

Diagram SP2. Vertical field of view should permit the driver to see the road surface ahead with
enough detail to gauge its condition. If the surface visible is too far away, resolution is lost and
road condition can become vague.

The position the driver will sit in takes into account their field of view first and foremost. However,
additional factors such as control positions, comfort and leg/arm leverage must also be factored
in.
The design goals of the seating position are:

● To enable the driver (and co-driver) to see clearly ahead and beside themselves
through standard and peripheral vision.
● To provide a position of comfortable leverage for the driver so they do not become
tired due to operating the controls from an awkward position.
● To enable the driver to adequately see the side mirrors in their peripheral vision (At a
minimum) so that the driver need not continuously take their eyes off the road ahead to
gauge an opponent’s position behind them. Ideally the side mirrors should be far
enough forward to enable direct viewing by a driver glancing at them.
● To enable easy visual access to gauges and other visual feedback in the forward
looking line of sight.
● To minimize CG height to optimize handling.

Control Positions
Vehicle controls should be within a comfortable reach of the driver (and co-driver if applicable)
and be comfortable to operate. Controls that are awkward to reach or difficult to operate will
distract the driver/co-driver and potentially result in more driving mistakes.

Steering Wheel

The four most important aspects of the steering wheel are:

1. Distance from the driver – The steering wheel is a tool of leverage. As such, if the
steering wheel is too close or too far away from the driver, they will find the steering
awkward and tiring. As shown in diagram SW1 below, with their arm straight (but not
straining), the driver should be able to rest their wrist on the top of the steering wheel.
Doing so will ensure that in the worst case, the driver’s arms will not be locked straight
while steering (Which is both uncomfortable and a poor leverage position)
 Diagram SW1. Distance from driver to steering wheel. A general rule of thumb is that the
driver’s wrist should sit on the top of the steering wheel with their arm straight and not
reaching (Not extending their shoulder forward).
2. Elbow Room – When turning, one arm will be forced to move closer to the driver’s
body. It is important to ensure that the seat does not interfere with that motion. If the
driver is forced to keep his arms in a wing-like posture to avoid the seat or jam their
elbow into their rib cage, it will be uncomfortable.
3. Steering Wheel Angle – The angle of the steering wheel goes hand in hand with
points #1 and #2 above. The arc through which the steering wheel turns determines
where the hands arms, and elbows will be located. To extreme an angle, horizontally
or vertically will be uncomfortable.
4. Steering Wheel Size – Steering wheel size determines the amount of leverage but
also the amount of motion required by the driver to turn the vehicle. The scrub radius
of the steering tires/wheels, the steering rack ratio and the diameter of the steering
wheel all contribute to the amount of movement and effort required to steer.

Ergonomics Tips (1/2)

Serve the driver

The vehicle cockpit should serve the driver, not the other way around. The more driver-friendly
the ergonomics are, the more comfortable the driver will be and the better than can focus on
driving.

Design in order

To design the cockpit, first establish a confident field of view. Next establish a seating position
that is optimal for that field of view and the vehicle’s other design goals. Then, determine control
positions and refine the overall cockpit through further iterations as needed.

Determining driver field of view

A helpful technique to achieve a good field of view is to use pieces of cardboard in place of
vehicle structure (sides, hood), and gauge the driver’s comfort with their view. By adjusting the
height of the pieces until the driver is comfortable and then taking measurements from the
cardboard surfaces to the driver’s eyes, an assessment of the driver’s required head position can
be made.
Pedals

The pedals, like the steering wheel involve leverage within a limited space. The three most
important factors affecting the pedals are:

1. Distance from the driver – Due to the limited motion of the legs, the pedals must be
located at a proper distance from the driver to ensure they can be engaged without
awkwardly stretching or pushing from cramped starting position. The comfort of the
position is gauged by the driver, but generally speaking, a starting, unengaged angle
for the legs should be no less than 90 degrees to ensure adequate leverage for long
pedal travels. For shorter pedal travels or more laid back seating positions, angles of
120 degrees or more may be preferable. Diagram PED1 below shows 90 and 120
degree angles.

Diagram PED1. Driver leg angle for disengaged pedals. Starting leg angle depends on
pedal travel, driver comfort and required leverage.
2. Leverage Ratio – Like a typical lever, the travel of the pedal that results from its
leverage ratio must be taken into account when designing the pedals and the pedal
distance from the driver (Point #1 above). Too long a travel and the motion may
become fatiguing. Too short a pedal travel and the extra force needed may become
fatiguing.
3. Control Sensitivity – Pedal travel again comes into play when we speak about
sensitivity. The pedal travel must be tuned to the precision required for optimal control.
For instance, a very short travel gas pedal might be difficult to control precisely on a
bumpy surface. A short travel clutch pedal may make the clutch too quick to “bite” and
cause bogging.
Information/Gauges/Communications

In addition to the road the driver sees and feels through the seat, pedals and steering wheel,
there is often a need for information that helps the driver to optimize their driving style and
actions.

The information needed must address the nature of the vehicle and racing (if applicable). For
example, a fuel flow gauge would be useful in racing that relies heavily upon managing fuel
consumption. If a driver and co-driver or pit crew need to communicate, then a communication
system would be in order. If switches are needed to control aspects of the vehicle, they will need
to be considered in the driver information system design.

Road or High-Performance Street machines have similar needs to racing cars, but the focus of
information is generally on ensuring “Nominal” operation—that is, you’re not running out of fuel,
your engine cooling system is working, you’re shifting at the right RPM, etc.

1. Gauges – The most critical and frequently viewed gauges in a race or

high-performance vehicle should be placed in or very near to the driver’s line of sight.
Within a 5-10° range of the line of sight, as shown in diagram IGC1 below, the driver
can quickly see the gauge readouts while still keeping their eyes on the road.

Diagram IGC1. The driver’s line of sight includes an angle range where their vision is
capable of quick gauge assessment which limits the duration away from focusing on
driving.
2. Radios in Racing – Driver-to-co-driver communications should use high quality noise
cancellation radio systems as the communication needs to be very clear in a
co-operative racing situation like Rally. In Driver-to-Pit communications, the same
principle applies, but incorporates a longer range transmission.
Radio type and antenna placement should be a design consideration, especially if the
race course is over undulating terrain (outside of line-of-sight transmission). As the
 quality of the equipment will largely dictate the range and quality of the transmission,
high quality noise cancellation radios are a must.
3. LCD displays/Data Acquisition – Steering wheel-based LCD/LED displays with data
acquisition have become very popular as a single screen alternative to having multiple
gauges.
Considerations for a designer using one of these displays should be for its brightness
and anti-reflective properties. In direct sunlight a poorly lit display will wash-out.
Consideration should also be given to the flexibility of the data acquisition for your
sensor requirements and its ability to customize the display.

Cockpit Environment

The cockpit environment the occupants are in is largely dictated by the ride characteristics
(Rough, smooth), the temperature (heat transfer from components like engine), the air flow, and
the noise level.

Ensuring the occupants have the optimal concentration involves designing the cockpit to regulate
the environment to avoid extremes.

The roughness of the road surface can be isolated from the occupants to some extent by
damping their seating—the vehicle retains nimble handling, but the occupants are cushioned.

Driver cooling is often an issue, but can be resolved by using fresh, cool air ducted to the cockpit
from the front of the vehicle and insulating the cockpit from engine and exhaust

Noise level can be controlled through earplugs or noise cancellation communications earphones.

Ergonomics Tips (2/2)

Determining driver position

Another helpful technique similar to that above is to use a mockup of the cockpit made from
cardboard to determine the driver seating position. Use boards and supports under the driver to
enable the driver to relax while keeping their head in the desired position for a good field of view.
Use cardboard to model a steering wheel and gauge panel and use blocks to mark pedal
positions and travel. The field of view should be rechecked with the “steering wheel” in position.

Consider driver comfort

Consider the comfort of the driver. A fully functioning cockpit can still leave the occupants tired,
hot, and bruised if environmental factors are not considered.

Car Chassis Basics and How-To Design Tips

The chassis (or frame) is a structure which locates and mounts all other parts of the vehicle. It
also provides a protected space for the occupant(s).

Chassis Types
There are multiple types of chassis but all of them can be classified into one of two approaches:

1. Use lengths of round or square tubing, or other structural metal shapes to form the
chassis structure (Space frame, multi-tube, ladder frame)
2. Use joined panels to form the chassis structure (Monocoque, Unibody)

Both approaches can provide a structure capable of mounting other vehicle components, but
each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Spaceframe Chassis

The Spaceframe chassis uses numerous cut and shaped pieces of structural metal tubing
(usually steel) joined together to form a strong framework. The diagram SF1 below from Ron
Champion’s book “Build Your Own Sports Car For As Little As £250”, shows an example of a
space frame chassis.
 Diagram SF1. Spaceframe chassis for a “Lowcost” car. From Ron Champion’s book “Build Your
Own Sports Car for as Little as £250 and Race It!”,

The principle of spaceframe design is to use triangulation of the tubes to create a rigid structure.
Diagrams SF2 and SF3 below show how triangulation is used to rigidize a structure:

Diagram SF2. An untriangulated box (One missing its sides) is easily warped.

An un-triangulated box has very little strength. You can see this in action above. As the hand
pushes against the corner of the box, the shape warps into a parallelogram.

Now, if we cross-brace or triangulate the box with a tube, the strength is greatly increased:
 Diagram SF3. A box with a cross-member forms two triangles (Shown in red) and is said to be
triangulated. The force applied to the box is trying to pull the cross-member apart.

In diagram SF3 above, the tube is being pulled in tension as if the corners of the box to where it
is attached were trying to tear it apart. Because of the tube’s strength in tension, the box will not
deform into the parallelogram of diagram SF2

Triangulation can also work with tubes in compression. However the ideal design always has the
member tubes working in tension which provides far superior strength to tubes working in
compression.

Diagram SF4 below shows how the load being applied is now attempting to crush or compress
the tube instead of tearing it apart. Because of the reduced strength in compression, buckling
can become an issue.

Diagram SF4. A triangulated box. The force applied to the box compresses the cross-member,
potentially buckling it if the force is sufficient..

Returning to diagram SF1, there are numerous examples in this diagram of how open box tube
structures have been triangulated to create a much more rigid chassis. The diagram also shows
suspension and other mounting brackets.
Spaceframes usually use square or round tubing. Square tube is easier to work with because
cutting it involves straight cuts at a particular angle. Round tubing does not butt up against other
round tubes well, and therefore requires a special tube notcher to cut round shapes into it.

The key aspect of spaceframe design is to identify and analyze the loads that are to be expected,
and design the frame and triangulation to handle those loads in an optimized fashion. As tubing
in tension provides higher strength than compression, a lighter gauge tubing may be used in
tension loaded areas to save weight. In areas where tubing sees compression loads, a heavier
gauge or larger diameter tubing may be better to use.

Monocoque Chassis

The monocoque chassis is technically an improvement over the spaceframe chassis. Diagram
MC1 below shows a simple example of the difference between spaceframe and monocoque
design.

Diagram MC1. Comparing the behavior of a monocoque versus a spaceframe under tension load.

The monocoque “Box” on the left uses a panel of material to structurally “complete” the box.
When the hand pushes against it in the direction shown by the green arrow, it creates a shear
force across the panel. This force is effectively handled the same way a tension load is by the
spaceframe triangulated box on the right. However, if the hand were to push from the other side
of the box, the spaceframe tube could potentially collapse in compression, whereas the
monocoque box would behave the same way it did before. See diagram MC2 below:
 Diagram MC2. Comparing the behavior of a monocoque versus a spaceframe under compression
load. Note the superior tension load handling of the monocoque and inferior compression load
handling of the spaceframe.

Both types of chassis can be made just as strong as each other. However, to make an equivalent
strength spaceframe generally requires more material and therefore more weight. The materials
used make a big difference as well.

In diagram MC3 below, both the monocoque “box” on the left and the fully triangulated
spaceframe “box” on the right would handle loads in the same manner (We’ve left out the rear of
the spaceframe “box” to avoid visually complicating the diagram)

Diagram MC3. Monocoque box and “equivalent” triangulated spaceframe. (Rear of spaceframe
not shown to keep diagram clarity.)

Although the monocoque can usually be made lighter and stronger than a spaceframe, it does
have some downsides that make it more complicated to design, build and operate.

First, the monocoque requires the structure formed by the panels to be “complete”. If you
observe the “box” in diagram MC3 that we used to demonstrate the monocoque, imagine one
side of it is missing as shown in diagram MC4 below:
 Diagram MC4. Incomplete load handling by a monocoque will cause it to deform and buckle.

We can push on the corner of the box where three panels meet (shown on the left) and it won’t
warp (much), but push on a corner next to where the missing side should be and the box will
buckle (as shown on the right). Where an opening exists, the chassis must handle loads through
a supporting sub-structure.

A primary goal in monocoque design is to ensure that there are no unhandled load paths that can
cause the monocoque structure to buckle. A buckled monocoque is no better than a buckled
spaceframe tube.

In the case of poorly handled load paths, the spaceframe can be more forgiving as the tubing
diameter and steel material usually provide a more gradual failure than a monocoque. However,
it is better to design the chassis correctly in the first place then to rely upon noticing gradual
failures.

This brings us to another key point about the monocoque—If it is damaged, it is difficult to repair
compared to spaceframe tubes. It is also difficult to detect damage on a monocoque whereas
bent or broken tubing is quite easy to spot.

Torsional Rigidity
Torsional rigidity is a property of every vehicle chassis that determines how much twist the
chassis will experience when loads are applied through the wheels and suspension. Diagram
TR1 below shows the principle.

Diagram TR1. Torsional Rigidity. The less the chassis twists, the more torsionally rigid it is
considered.

A chassis that has a lot of twist won’t handle as predictably as one which has very little because
by twisting, the chassis begins to act like an extension of the suspension. The suspension is
designed to allow the wheels/tires to follow the road’s bumps and dips. If the chassis twists when
a tire hits a bump, it acts like part of the suspension, meaning that tuning the suspension is
difficult or impossible. Ideally, the chassis should be ultra-rigid, and the suspension compliant.
Torsional rigidity is measured in lbs-ft/degree or kg-m/degree. One end of the chassis (front or
rear) is held stationary and the other end is balanced on a point and twist is applied via a beam.
Diagram TR2 below shows the basic idea:

Diagram TR2. Method to measure torsional rigidity.

Chassis Design Tips (1/2)

Modifying Production Chassis

When considering modifying a production-based chassis to mount alternate suspension, engines

or drivetrain, spend time studying the unibody (newer vehicle) or ladder-frame (older vehicle)
structures. The structures formed by the manufacturer’s chassis designers have strong areas
intended for loads and weak areas not intended to carry loads. Identifying the correct parts of the
chassis structure to cut or modify is critical.

Consider using scale models of the vehicle (if plastic models were made), to mockup the
changes, or 3D modeling software to do the same. If the changes involve the suspension, such
as lowering the vehicle, model the new suspension first. Sometimes lowering the vehicle while
using the same suspension pickup points will create poor handling.
Build Chassis Models

Modeling a spaceframe chassis with balsa wood sticks enables you to see firsthand the
differences triangulation makes to the stiffness of a chassis. Herb Adams, in his book “Chassis
Engineering” provides a whole chapter on chassis modeling using balsa and paper. His
recommendation is for a 1/12 scale model.

Likewise, using cardboard, paper and glue to build model monocoques can be a very rewarding
and low cost learning experience as well. The great thing about these materials is that they don’t
have a lot of strength and so the deformations that loads create can be easily seen when loads
are applied.

Design the chassis after the suspension

It is much easier to design a tentative suspension according to the rules and good geometry, and
then build the chassis to conform to suspension mounting points and springs/damper mounts.
See our “Designing Your Own Race Car” section

Consider the load paths

A chassis is not about “absorbing” energy, but rather about support. When considering
placement of tubes, visualize the “load paths”, and consider using FEA (Finite Element Analysis
software) to help analyze load scenarios. Load paths are defined as the forces resulting from
accelerating and decelerating, in the longitudinal and lateral directions which follow the tubing
from member to member. The first forces which come to mind are suspension mounts, but things
like the battery and driver place stresses on the spaceframe structure.

Maximize CG placement and vehicle balance

Center of gravity affects the car like a pendulum. The ideal place for the CG is absolutely
between the front and rear wheels and the left and right wheels. Placing the CG fore or aft or left
or right of this point means that weight transfers unevenly depending on which way the car is
turning, and whether it is accelerating or decelerating. The further from this ideal point, the more
one end of the car acts like a pendulum, and the more difficult it is to optimize handling.
The CG is also height dependant. Placing an engine higher off the ground raises the CG, and
forces larger amounts of weight to transfer when cornering, accelerating, or decelerating. The
goal of vehicle design is to keep all four wheels planted if possible to maximize grip, so placing
all parts in the car at their lowest possible location will help lower the CG height.

Which Chassis Type to Choose?

The complexity of designing and building the chassis and the ambiguity in detecting damaging in
a monocoque leads most amateur designers to stick with the spaceframe chassis—easier to
design, build and operate. The tools and learning curve are far easier to manage as well.

Yet, if you are interested in the monocoque chassis, do go out and learn as much as you can and
experiment with the techniques of design and fabrication.

If a career in engineering is your goal, then knowledge of both spaceframe design and
monocoque design will serve you well in many fields.

Modeling a Chassis
Before building your vehicle, consider building models to aid in visualizing design. Some may
prefer to stick with computer tools like FEA (Finite Element Analysis) software, but for sheer
hands-on visualization, we recommend building your own balsa spaceframe models or using
paper or crafts materials to form a monocoque.

As the photo MOD1 below from Herb Adam’s book Chassis Engineering shows, these models
can provide insight into the design and torsional rigidity of various configurations:
 Diagram MOD1. Balsa model of a chassis shown in Herb Adam’s book “Chassis Engineering:
Chassis Design, Building & Tuning for High Performance Handling”

Chassis Structural Materials/Shapes

Designing a chassis, be it spaceframe or monocoque requires an understanding of the right
materials and their engineering properties. We’ll take a look at some of the basic materials used,
but there are whole books available which cover the topic in the detail that a scratch-builder will
need.

Structural Materials

Most modern spaceframes are built using steel structural tubing in grades 1018, 1020 or 4130
chromoly. The first two grades are considered mild steel with sufficient strength and toughness
for amateur car builders. These grades are not affected by welding heat and do not require
post-welding heat treatment. The 4130 chromoly grade, while stronger than mild steel, does
require post-welding heat treatment to restore its mechanical properties.

Steel is very good from a metal fatigue perspective and due to the vibration and oscillating loads
encountered in cars and trucks, it is the preferred material for amateur builders who’s goals are
long chassis life and dependable strength.

Aluminum has been used in spaceframe design and can provide weight savings but depending
on the grade, it may or may not be weldable. The fatigue life and strength should be understood
before selecting aluminum as your spaceframe material.
For monocoque builders, the materials most often used today is fiber reinforced plastic (FRP).
The fiber can be anything from fiberglass to carbon fiber, depending on the requirement to save
weight. The plastic is generally 2-part epoxy. Builders make use of composite sandwich
structures by laminating FRP over a honeycomb structure. These “Panels” are very rigid in
bending. Forbes Airde, in his book “Race Car Chassis Design and Construction” provides a chart
(Diagram SM1 below) showing how composite sandwiches, while almost 4 times as thick as
steel weigh only 1/5th the weight of steel for the same bending strength.

Diagram SM1. Chart from Forbes Airde’s book “The Race Car Chassis : Design, Structures and
Materials for Road, Drag and Circle Track Open- and Closed-Wheel Chassis ”. While thicker than
steel, panels made of other materials can provide equivalent strength while weighing less.
Structural Shapes

The selection of structural shapes for spaceframe construction provides the designer with
flexibility in how they optimize their chassis designs. In diagram SS1 below, the most popular
shapes are shown:

Diagram SS1. Structural shapes

Square and rectangular tubing provides the easiest design and fabrication. As mentioned earlier,
cutting and welding/brazing is the easiest with square or rectangular shapes. Rectangular tubing
also provides the opportunity to create a “Beam-like” structure where more strength is required
on one axis than the other. Square and rectangular 4130 chromoly is also available, but generally
at a higher cost than circular.

Circular tubing, while not as easy to fabricate with, is widely available in 4130 chromoly, so to
take advantage of the increased strength or reduced weight for the same strength, circular (and
oval) may be the shape of choice.

Oval tubing is popular for use in exposed wishbones on open-wheel type race cars. Its shape is
more aerodynamic than round or square tubing and therefore it creates less drag and turbulence.
The downside is that it is not as structurally strong as round or square tubing in bending (Along
the narrower dimension).

The I-Beam type shape may be useful where deflection (bending) along the “I” vertical axis
needs to be minimized over a span. In long span situations, square tubing will not fare as well as
I-beam in terms of deflection.
Chassis Design Tips (2/2)

Layout the tube members for easy access and maintenance

Maintaining a car comes after construction. Placing tubes across openings is a natural way of
ensuring a rigid chassis. However, in practical terms you may be making it difficult or impossible
to reach the maintenance demanding components. A good chassis design will allow quick and
easy access to all components and will not hamper removal or replacement of any part.

Check out vehicles which are competitive in your class

Vehicles which are competitive are usually built well, and with appropriate materials and
methods. Observe them at the track and in the pits, and you can infer a great deal about what
makes them winners.

Optimize the tubing shape for the job

Square tubing is the easiest structural shape to build a chassis from. However, there are
circumstances where round tubing can be useful, albeit at a penalty in the complexity of
construction. Oval tubing is useful in open wheel race cars for wishbones.

Optimize the tubing size and gauge for the job

Tubing which is used in tension, can be of a lighter gauge than that used in compression.
Keeping this in mind can save considerable weight, although it requires additional joining work
and variety of tubing.
Choose the right material

Many road and race car chassis are built using mild steel in the 1018 or 1020 grade (anything
lower than 1018 is not advisable due to its limited strength). There is nothing wrong with using
these grades if the chassis is properly designed and weight is not the utmost concern. 1018 and
1020 don’t require heat treatment after welding and can be MIG welded, making fabrication
easier.

If weight is a concern, then many builders opt for 4130 Chromoly. The same strength can be had
with 4130 for less weight than mild steel. However, depending on how you join your tubing, you
may need to heat treat the finished product. 4130 also usually comes in round, which is more
difficult to fabricate but aircraft builder suppliers can provide square 4130 at a higher price.

The key point to consider is the need for weight saving. If weight is not a concern, you may wish
to opt for the easier to fabricate mild steel. If it is, then you may have limited choices outside of
4130.