CHAPTER 3:

Evaluating Properties
 The State Principle
Two independent, intensive, thermodynamic
properties are required to fix the state of a
simple compressible system.

For example: P and v T and u x and h

Intensive thermodynamic properties:

h – specific u – specific internal x – quality s –specific entropy
enthalpy energy (steam only)
P –absolute T – absolute v – specific Less used:
pressure temperature volume g - Gibbs free energy
a - Helmholz free energy
 P-v-T Relation
For a substance that expands on freezing. Note
the location of the following:
- Single and two-phase regions
- Saturation states
- Triple line and critical point
 P-v-T Relation
For a substance that contracts on freezing.
 T-v Diagram

Diagram courtesy of Jerry M. Seitzman, 2001.

 Phase Changes

Constant Pressure phase change of water:

a) Subcooled or Compressed Liquid

b) Two-phase liquid-vapor mixture (steam)
c) Superheated vapor
T-v Diagram for Water
Phase Diagram for Water
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Vapor and Liquid Tables
Values are dependent
on reference states
For Water:
– Superheated vapor
properties in Tables
A-4, A-4E
– Compressed liquid
properties in Tables
A-5, A-5E
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Linear Interpolation between values in the tables

TL − T vL − v Subscripts:

= L – Value in table at lower end

TH − TL vH − vL
H – Value in table at upper end
None – value of interest
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Quality: For use in Tables A-2 and A-3
• For Saturated Mixture
(Liquid-Vapor) Region mg
– Quality; x; an intensive x≡
property
– x gives fraction that is m f + mg
vapor (gas)
– (1-x) gives Moisture
Content
0 ≤ x ≤ 1;
x = 0 → Saturated Liquid (subscript ‘f’)
x = 1 → Saturated Vapor (subscript ‘g’)
‘fg’ → ‘g’-’f’
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Enthalpy

H = U + P ⋅V
h =u + P⋅v
Enthalpy is a property constructed due to the frequent
occurrence of the above combination of properties.
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
Quality Relations
LET b = ANY INTENSIVE PROPERTY
– (b = v, u, h, s, etc.)

b − bf b − bf
=x =
bg − b f b fg
b = b f + x ⋅ b fg
b fg= bg − b f
b = x ⋅ bg + (1 − x ) ⋅ b f
 Evaluating Specific Heats
∂u  ∂h  cp
cv =  cp =  k=
∂T  v ∂T  p cv
 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and
Solids
Approximations for liquids and solids
• Using Saturated Liquid • Using ‘Incompressible
Data (‘Compressed Substance Model’
Liquid Rule’)
c=
p c=
v c
v ≈ vf u2 − u1= c(T2 − T1 )
h ≈ hf h2 − h1= c(T2 − T1 ) + v ( P2 − P1 )
h2 − h1 ≈ c(T2 − T1 )
u ≈ uf
s ≈ sf
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
Universal Gas Constant

pv�
lim �
=R
p→0 T

8.314 kJ/(kmol. K)
� o
R=� 1.986 Btu/(lbmol. R)
1545 ft. lbf/(lbmol. o R)
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
Compressibility Factor
pv�
Z=
�T
R
v� = Mv
pv �
R
Z= R=
RT M
 Generalized Compressibility Chart
Reduced Pressure

p
pR =
pc

Reduced Temperature

T
TR =
Tc
Evaluating Properties of Ideal Gases
Requirements:
Pv = nRT R 𝑍𝑍 ≈ 1
R= T ≫ Tc
Pv = RT M
P ≪ Pc
PV = mRT
The Ideal Gas Model:
When specific heats
du are assumed constant
u = u(T ) cv (T ) = Table A-20(E):
dT u2 − u= cv (T2 − T1 )
=h h= (T ) u(T ) + RT 1
dh
Tables A-22(E) and A-23 (E) c p (T ) = h2 − h=
1 c p (T2 − T1 )
dT
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇) = 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 (𝑇𝑇) + 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐�𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇) = 𝑐𝑐�𝑣𝑣 (𝑇𝑇) + 𝑅𝑅�
Evaluating Properties of Ideal Gases

𝑐𝑐�𝑝𝑝
= 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇 + 𝛾𝛾𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝛿𝛿𝑇𝑇 3 + 𝜀𝜀𝑇𝑇 4 Table A-21
𝑅𝑅
 Polytropic Process of an Ideal Gas
PV n = constant
For a closed system: n
P2  V1 
= 
P1  V2 
Expansion/Compression (Moving
Boundary) Work (Ideal Gas OR liquid): Ideal Gases ONLY:
( n −1) / n ( n −1)
T2  P2   V1 
P2V2 − PV
2
= =
   
∫ P ⋅ dV
=
1
1− n
1 1
, ( n ≠ 1) T1  P1   V2 
mR(T2 − T1 )
2
2
 V2  ∫ P ⋅ dV
= ,( n ≠ 1)
∫ P ⋅ dV
= PV
1 1 =
ln  , ( n 1)
 V1 
1
1− n
1 2
 V2 
∫1 P ⋅ dV =
mRT ln  
 V1 