COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

SOME FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS

OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Mach number

gas velocity V
mach number, M = =
speed of sound a

γP
a= = γRT
ρ

M <1 : subsonic
M =1 : transonic
M >1 : supersonic
M >> 1 : hypersonic

Part three : Mach Number 27

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Isentropic flow in a streamtube

In order to illustrate the importance of the Mach number
in determining the conditions under which
compressibility must be taken in account, isentropic
flow, i.e., frictionless adiabatic flow, through a
streamtube will be first considered.

From previous chapter, we know that ;

dP ρV 2 dV P a2
=− =
P P V and ρ γ

the above equation can be written as :

dP V 2 dV 2 dV
= −γ 2 = −γM (1)
P a V V

This equation shows that the magnitude of the fractional

pressure change, induced by a given fractional velocity
change, depends on the square of Mach number.

Part three : Mach Number 28

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Next, consider the energy equation. Since adiabatic

flow is being considered ;
dT V 2 dV γR 2 dV
=− =− M
T c pT V cp V

γR
= γ −1
Since; R = c p − cv = 1−
1
γ and c p

Above equation can be written as ;

dT dV
= −(γ − 1) M 2 (2)
T V

Lastly, consider the equation of state;

dP dρ dT
= +
P ρ T

combining above equation with eq.(1) and eq.(2)

Part three : Mach Number 29

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

dρ dV 2 dV
= −γM + (γ − 1) M
2

ρ V V

This equation indicates that:

dρ
ρ
= −M 2
dV
V

(negative sign means, density decrease when velocity

increased)

dρ
ρ
= −1%
at M=0.1 , dV
V

dρ
ρ
= −11%
at M=0.33 , dV
V

At low mach number, density changes will be

insignificant.

Part three : Mach Number 30

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Normally at M<0.3, the fluid is assumed

incompressible.

It should also be noted that above equation can we

written as ;
dT T
= −(γ − 1) M 2
dV V

Similarly, the temperature difference is neglected at

lower value of Mach number.

Part three : Mach Number 31

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Mach waves

Disturbances tend to propagated ahead of the body in

motion to “warn” the gas of the approach of the body.

This is due to pressure at the surface is higher than

surrounding gas and pressure waves spread out from the
body.

The pressure waves spread out at the of sound

Effect of the velocity of the body relative to the speed

of sound (pressure wave velocity) on the flow field.

Part three : Mach Number 32

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Consider for subsonic flow M<1, figure (1).

Speed of the body u and speed of sound a, where u<a.
Body position at a, b, c and d at time interval t. Waves
generated at time 0, t, 2t and 3t. Since u<a, a body
moves slower than the waves and therefore a body will
never overtake it.

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

If u>a, then M>1, the flow is supersonic, a body moves

faster than the waves and will overtake it, (figure (2)).
The waves lie within a cone which has its vertex at the
body at the time considered. On gas within this cone
“aware” of the presence of the body. Vertex angle α is
called Mach angle, where ;
a 1
sin α = =
u M
The cone is therefore termed a conical Mach wave.

Part three : Mach Number 34

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Part three : Mach Number 35

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Part three : Mach Number 36

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

ONE-DIMENSIONAL
ISENTROPIC FLOW

INTRODUCTION

An adiabatic flow (a flow in which there is no heat

exchange) in which viscous losses are negligible, i.e., it
is an adiabatic frictionless flow.

Although no real flow is entirely isentropic, there are

many flows of great practical importance in which the
major portion of the flow can be assumed to be
isentropic.

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 37

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For example, in internal duct flows there are many

important cases where the effects of viscosity and heat
transfer are restricted to thin layers adjacent to the walls,
i.e., are only important in the wall boundary layers, and
the rest of the flow can be assumed to be isentropic.

Even when non-isentropic effects become important, it

is often possible to calculate the flow by assuming it to
be isentropic and to then apply an empirical correction
factor to the solution so obtained to account for the
non-isentropic effect, for example, in the design nozzle.

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 38

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

GOVERNING EQUATION

By definition, the entropy remains constant in an

isentropic flow.
P
γ
=c
ρ (c:constant) (4.1)

From equation (4.1)

γ
P2 ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
P1 ⎝ ρ1 ⎠

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 39

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Hence, since the general equation of state gives ;

P1 P2 T2 P2 ρ 2
= =
ρ1T1 ρ 2T2 or T1 P1 ρ1

It follows that in isentropic flow ;

γ −1
γ −1
T2 ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞ ⎛ P2 ⎞ γ
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
T1 ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠

Recalling that a = γRT , that ;

1 γ −1 γ −1
a2 ⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ρ ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ρ ⎞ 2γ
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
a1 ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ eq.(4.5)

The steady flow adiabatic energy equation is next

applied between the point 1 and point 2. This gives ;

V12 V22
c pT1 + = c pT2 +
2 2

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COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

It can be written as ;
T2 1 + (V1 2c pT1 )
2

=
T1 1 + (V22 2c pT2 )

From ;
V2 ⎡ V 2 ⎤ ⎡ γR ⎤ γ − 1 2
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥= M
2c pT ⎣ 2γRT ⎦ ⎢⎣ c p ⎥⎦ 2

So, it follows that ;

T2 1 + 12 (γ − 1) M 12
=
T1 1 + 12 (γ − 1) M 22 eq.(4.6)

This equation applies in adiabatic flow. If friction

effects are also negligible, i.e., if the flow is isentropic,
eq.(4.6) cam be used in conjunction with the isentropic
state relations given in eq.(4.5) to obtain ;

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 41

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

γ
P2 ⎡1 + 12 (γ − 1) M 12 ⎤ γ −1
=⎢ 1 ⎥
P1 ⎣1 + 2 (γ − 1) M 22 ⎦ and
1
ρ 2 ⎡1 + 12 (γ − 1) M 12 ⎤ γ −1
=⎢ 1
ρ1 ⎣1 + 2 (γ − 1) M 22 ⎥⎦

Lastly, it is called that the continuity equation gives ;

ρ1V1 A1 = ρ 2V2 A2

which can be rearranged to give ;

A1 ⎛ ρ 2 ⎞⎛ V2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
A2 ⎝ ρ1 ⎠⎝ V1 ⎠

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 42

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

STAGNATION CONDITIONS

Stagnation conditions are those that would exist if the

flow at any point in fluid stream was isentropically
brought to rest.

If the entire flow is essentially isentropic and if the

velocity is essentially zero at some point in the flow,
then the stagnation conditions will be those existing at
the zero velocity point.

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 43

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

However, even when the flow is non-isentropic, the

concept of the stagnation conditions is still useful, the
stagnation conditions at a point the being the conditions
that would exist if the local flow were brought to rest
isentropically.

If the equations derived in the previous section are

applied between a point in the flow where the pressure,
density, temperature and Mach number are P, ρ, T, M
respectively, then if the stagnation conditions are
denoted by the subscript 0, the stagnation pressure,
density and temperature will, since the Mach number is
zero at the point where the stagnation conditions exist,
be given by ;

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 44

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

γ
P0 ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
P ⎣ 2 ⎦
1
ρ0 ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
T0 ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
T ⎣ 2 ⎦

( for the particular case of γ = 1.4 )

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 45

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

CRITICAL CONDITIONS

The critical conditions are those that would exist if the

flow was isentropically accelerated or decelerated until
the Mach number was unity, (M = 1)

These critical conditions are usually denoted by an

asterisk.

By setting M2=1, we found ;

T* ⎡ 2 γ −1 2 ⎤
=⎢ + M ⎥
T ⎣γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎦
1
a ⎡ 2
*
γ −1 2 ⎤ 2
=⎢ + M ⎥
a ⎣γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎦
γ
P* ⎡ 2 γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
=⎢ + M ⎥
P ⎣γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎦

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 46

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

1
ρ ⎡ 2
*
γ −1 2 ⎤ γ −1
=⎢ + M ⎥
ρ ⎣γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎦

By setting M2=0, we found ;

T* 2
=
T0 γ + 1
a* 2
=
a0 γ +1
γ
P* ⎡ 2 ⎤ γ −1
=⎢
P0 ⎣ γ + 1⎥⎦
1
ρ ⎡ 2 ⎤
* γ −1
=⎢
ρ 0 ⎣ γ + 1⎥⎦

For the case of air flow ;

T* P* ρ*
= 0.833 = 0.528 = 0.634
T0 , P0 , ρ0

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 47

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

MAXIMUM DISCHARGE VELOCITY

Also known as “maximum escape velocity”, is the

velocity that would be generated if a gas was
adiabatically expanded until its temperature has
dropped to absolute zero.

Using the adiabatic energy equation gives the maximum

discharge velocity as :

Vˆ 2 V 2
= + cPT = c pT0
2 2

This can be rearranged to give ;

Vˆ = (V 2 + 2cPT ) = 2c pT0

2 a 2
2 a 2
Vˆ = (V 2 + )= 0
γ −1 γ −1

Part four : One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 48