Submitted to : Miss Rabia Wali

Submitted by : Turab Ghumman

Course Title : Physics- II

Course Code : Phys-247

Roll No. : Math-19017

Department : Mathematics

Section : A

Semester : 2nd

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 Contents

Topics Page
No.
1) Joule-Thomson Effect
Definition 3
Principle 3
Explanation 3-4
Physical Mechanism 4
Joule-Thomson Coefficient 4
Applications of Joule-Thomson Effect 5
Conclusion 5
2) Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gas
Definition 5
Equation 6
Explanation 6
Postulates 6
Pressure of Gas 6
Expression for Pressure of Gas 7-9
Conclusion 9
3) Work Done on an Ideal Gas
Positive and Negative Work Done 10
Expression of Work Done on Ideal Gas 10-11
Examples 11
Work Done on Ideal Gas is Path Dependent Process 12-13
Work done on Ideal Gas during Isothermal Process 13
Work done on Ideal Gas during Isobaric Process 13-14
Work done on Ideal Gas during Isochoric Process 14
Conclusion 14
 References 15

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 Joule-Thomson Effect

The phenomenon was investigated in 1852 by the British physicists James Prescott Joule and
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

Definition:

When a highly compressed gas from high pressure region is suddenly allowed to
expand through a porous plug into a region of low pressure, it causes cooling.

Principle:

Joule-Thomson Effect is based on thermodynamics principle that occurs when a fluid

expands from high pressure to low pressure at constant enthalpy.

Explanation:

The molecules of a compressed gas are very close to each other and appreciable
attractive forces are present among them. When a gas is allowed to undergo sudden expansion
through the porous plug or nozzle of a jet, then the molecules move apart. In this way, energy is
needed to overcome the intermolecular attractions. This energy is taken from the gas itself,
which is cooled.

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This process is also known as Throttling Process which is a fundamentally irreversible process.
At ordinary temperatures and pressures, all real gases except hydrogen and helium cool upon
such expansion. Hydrogen and helium will cool upon expansion only if their initial temperatures
are very low.

Physical mechanism:

There are two factors that can change the temperature of a fluid during an
expansion; a change in internal energy or the conversion between potential and kinetic internal
energy. If work is done on or by the fluid as it expands, then the total internal energy changes.
This is what happens in a Joule–Thomson expansion and can produce larger heating or cooling
than observed in a free expansion. In a Joule–Thomson expansion the enthalpy remains
constant. The enthalpy H, is defined as

H = U + PV

If Work done PV increases, with Enthalpy H constant, then Internal energy U must decrease
which produces a decrease in temperature and results in a positive Joule–Thomson coefficient
and vice versa.

The Joule–Thomson coefficient:

The temperature change produced during a Joule–Thomson expansion is quantified

by the Joule–Thomson coefficient. This coefficient may be either positive (corresponding to
cooling) or negative (heating).

Definition:

The rate of change of temperature T with respect to pressure P in a Joule–Thomson

process is the Joule–Thomson coefficient.

Mathematically:

∂T
µJT = ( ∂ P )H

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Applications of Joule-Thomson Effect:

 The cooling produced in the Joule-Thomson expansion has made it a very valuable tool
in refrigeration, air conditioners, and heat pumps.
 The effect is applied in the Linde technique in the petrochemical industry, where the
cooling effect is used to liquefy gases.
 It is also used in many cryogenic applications. For example for the production of liquid
nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.
 The effect can also be used to liquefy even helium.

Conclusion:

We conclude from Joule-Thomson Effect that when the pressure of gas changes, its
temperature also changes, however, the enthalpy remains constant.

Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gas

The kinetic theory of gases was devised by Bernoulli to explain the gas laws, and was developed
by Clausius, Joule and Maxwell to explain many other properties of gases.

Definition:

A set of postulates that describes the nature and behavior of an ideal gas is called
Kinetic Theory of gasses.

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Equation:

R.J Clausius deduced this Kinetic Equation of ideal gas:

1
PV = Nmu2
3
Where, P = Pressure, V = Volume, m = Mass of one molecule of gas
N = Number of molecules of gas in vessel, u2 = Mean square velocity
Explanation:

The kinetic theory of gases explains the macroscopic properties of gases, such as
volume, pressure, and temperature, as well as transport properties such as viscosity, thermal
conductivity and mass diffusivity. The model describes a gas as a large number of identical
submicroscopic particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant, rapid, random
motion.
Postulates:

 Every gas consists of a large number of very small particles called molecules. The
average distance separating the gas particles is large compared to their size.
 The molecules of a gas move haphazardly, colliding among themselves and with the
walls of the container and change their directions.
 The pressure exerted by a gas is due to the collisions of its molecules with the walls of
container. The collisions among the molecules are perfectly elastic.
 The molecules of a gas are widely separated from one another and there are sufficient
spaces among them.
 The molecules of gas have no intermolecular forces for each other.
 The actual volume of molecules of a gas is negligible as compared to the volume of gas.
 The motion imparted to the molecules by gravity is negligible as compared to the effect
of the continued collisions between them.
 The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules varies directly as the absolute
temperature of the gas i.e. T ∝ <K.E>

Pressure of Gas:

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 According to kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by a gas is the momentum
transferred to the wall of the container per sec per unit area due to the collisions of molecules of
the gas.
Expression for Pressure of Gas:

Consider a cubical box having gas molecules moving freely.

Let,
Length of side of box = ℓ, Number of molecules of a gas = N
Mass of each molecule of gas = m, Mass of N molecule = mN
Velocity of molecule moving along positive x-axis = v1x
Initial momentum of molecules = mv1x,
Since the collision is elastic, the molecules will rebound from the face with same speed. So
Final momentum = ─mv1x, Change in momentum = ─mv1x ─mv1x = ─2mv1x
After recoiling the molecule travels to opposite face and collides with it. The molecules again
rebound to the previous face after covering a distance 2ℓ.
Let, time between two successive collisions = ∆t
2l
Then ∆t = v ∵ S = vt
1x

Number of collisions per sec (collision frequency) is given by,

1 v1x
f = ∆t =
2l
─ 2 m v1 x
Rate of change of momentum of the molecules =
∆t

Putting value of ∆t, we get

v 1 x ─ m v 1 x2
Rate of change of momentum = ─2mv1x × =
2l l

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By 2nd law of motion, rate of change of momentum of molecule is equal to the force applied by
the wall and from Newton’s 3rd law of motion Force F1x exerted by the molecule on the face is
equal but opposite.

So,

m v1 x2
[
F1x = ─ ─
l
]

m v1 x2
F1x =
l
Thus, the total force acting along x-axis due to N molecules of the gas moving with velocities v 1x,
v2x, v3x,…….,vNx is
Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x ……. + FNx
m v1 x2 m v2 x2 m v3 x2 m v Nx2
Fx = + + + …….
l l l l

As pressure is normal force per unit area

Fx Fx
Hence Px = = ∵ Area = ℓ × ℓ = ℓ2
A l

1 m v1 x2 m v2 x2 m v3 x2 m v Nx2
Px = + + +……
l2 l l l l

m 2 2 2 2
Px = 3 v1x + v2x + v3x +……. vNx (1)
l

mass
Since Density =
Volume
mN
ρ=
l3
m ρ
=
l3 N
m
Substituting the value of in eq. (1), we get
l3

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 ρ
Px = v 2 + v2x2 + v3x2 +……. vNx2
N 1x

v 1 x 2 +v 2 x2 + v 3 x 2+ ..........+ v Nx2
Px = ρ (2)
N

v 1 x 2 +v 2 x2 + v 3 x 2+ ..........+ v Nx2
Where = <vx2> is called the mean of square velocity of
N
molecules moving along x-direction.

So, eq.(2) becomes

Px = ρ<vx2> (3)

Similarly, pressure on the faces perpendicular to y and z axes will be

Py = ρ<vy2>
Pz = ρ<vz2>
As the motion of molecules is random, therefore mean square velocity of all the components of
velocity will be equal
<vx2> = <vy2> = <vz2>
Since, <v2> = <vx2> + <vy2> + <vz2>
<v2> = <vx2> + <vx2> + <vx2>
<v2> = 3<vx2>
1 2
<vx2> = <v >
3
Putting the value of <vx2> in eq. (3), we get
1
Px = ρ <v2>
3
According to Pascal Law, pressure of gas everywhere inside the vessel will be the same. So,
P = P x = Py = Pz
1
Thus in general, P== ρ <v2>
3
This is the relation for pressure in terms of mean square velocity.
Conclusion:

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 We conclude from kinetic theory of ideal gases that the molecules of gas are in random
motion and are continuously colliding with each other and with the walls of the container. All the
collisions involved are elastic in nature due to which the total kinetic energy and the total
momentum both are conserved. No energy is lost or gained from collisions.

Work Done on an Ideal Gas

Both heat and work correspond to transfer of energy by some means. This idea was first
applied to steam engine where it was natural to transfer inn heat and get work out.

Positive Work done:

Work done by the system (gas) on its environment is considered as positive.

Negative Work done:

Work done by the environment on the system (gas) is considered as negative. If

an amount of heat Q enters the system it either appears as an increase in internal energy of the
system or is used up in doing work by the system on its environment.

Expression for Work done on Ideal Gas:

Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder provided with movable piston of cross-
sectional area A. In equilibrium, the system occupies volume V and exerts a pressure P on the
walls of the cylinder and its piston.

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The gas expands and raises the piston carrying weights when temperature of gas is increased.
The upward force F = PA acts on piston. By Newton’s third law, the force exerted by the piston
on the gas is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the gas on the piston.

The amount of work done by force F = PA which raises piston upward by distance dx is

F . d⃗x
dW = ⃗

Net work done is

W = ∫ dW

F . d⃗x
W=∫⃗

W = ∫ F dx cos180 °

W = ─ ∫ F dx ∵ cos180° = ─1

Putting value of F = PA, we get

W = ─ ∫ PA dx

Where dx is displacement moved by piston in upward direction and ─ve means force
exerted by the piston on gas is against the distance moved by piston. The gas contracts and
work done will be positive when temperature of gas is reduced. As the piston moves through
distance dx, the volume V of gas changes by amount

dV = A dx

The work done on gas becomes

W = ─ ∫ P dV

It suggests that when the gas expands, dV is positive and Work done W becomes negative. On
the other hand, when gas contracts dV is negative and Work done is on the gas which is
positive. It means

When Vf > Vi W is negative

When Vf < Vi W is positive

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Examples:

In refrigerator or heat pump, we have to supply work as input. Another example of

the system is compressor.

Work Done on Ideal Gas is Path Dependent Process:

Work done can be calculated from area under P-V graph. Consider two paths ADC and
ABC as shown in PV diagram.

Work Done Along Path ADC:

The work done on gas along path ADC is W 1 which is equal to sum of work done along
two segments WAD and WDC,

W1 = WAD + WDC

Since volume is constant along AD so WAD = 0

vf

W1 = 0 ─ ∫ P dV
vi

vf

W1 = ─ ∫ P f dV
vi

W1 = ─ Pf ( Vf ─ Vi ) (1)

Work Done Along Path ABC:

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The work done along path ABC is

W2 = WAB + WBC

Since volume is constant along BC so WBC = 0

vf

W2 = ─ ∫ P dV + 0
vi

vf

W2 = ─ ∫ Pi dV
vi

W2 = ─ Pi ( Vf ─ Vi ) (2)

From eq. (1) and eq. (2)

W 1 ≠ W2

So taking integrals of both paths give us the area of cross section and we find that the W 1 ≠ W2.
In this case, we get that work done on ideal gas depends upon path.

Work Done on Ideal Gas during Isothermal Process:

The process in which temperature remains constant but volume is inversely proportional
to pressure is called isothermal process.
The work done on ideal gas is

W = ∫ P dV (1)

From ideal gas law

PV = nRT

nRT
P= (2)
V

Put eq. (2) in eq. (1)

Vf
nRT
W=─∫ dV
Vi
V

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 Vf
W = ─ nRT Ln
Vi

Work done is negative when Vf > Vi and work done is positive when Vf < Vi .

Work Done on Ideal Gas during Isobaric Process:

The process pressure remains constant is called isobaric process.

The work done on ideal gas is

Vf

W = ─ ∫ P dV
Vi

At constant pressure

Vf

W = ─ P ∫ dV = ─ P ( Vf ─ Vi )
Vi

W is negative when Vf > Vi and work done is positive when Vf < Vi .

Work Done on Ideal Gas during Isochoric Process:

The process in which volume remains constant is called isochoric process.

Work done on ideal gas is

Vf

W = ─ ∫ P dV
Vi

The piston does not move and covers no distance when volume is kept constant. Therefore,
volume change from initial to final value is zero,

Vf

W = ─ ∫ P dV ∵ V i = Vf
Vf

W = ─ P ( Vf ─ Vf )

W = P(0)

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 W=0

Work done on ideal gas during isochoric process is zero.

Conclusion:

We conclude from work done on ideal gas that Volume and Temperature are
directly proportional to each other and if the work is done on the gas then it will be negative.
Work done is a path dependent process. Work done on ideal gas increases the internal energy
of the gas.

References:

 en.wikipedia.org
 Physics PTB
 Thermodynamics, Electricity & Magnetism by Prof. M. Kaleem Akhtar
 www.britannica.com
 byjus.com
 www.sciencedirect.com
 www.unf.edu
 www.toppr.com
 courses.lumenlearning.com
 www.emedicalprep.com
 opentextbc.ca
 phys.libretexts.org
 www.quora.com

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