KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
AERO 396---AEROSPACE ENGINEERING LAB II

AERO LAB: CHOKING IN A CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT DUCT

MEMBERS INDEX NUMBERS

TECHIE JOSEPH DERRICK 3166420

DUMASI JOSHUA TAWIAH IDDI 3162420

QUANSAH EMMANUEL 3166020

CUDJOE DOUGLAS KLUIVERT 3162220

OPARE THEOPHILUS AWUKU 3165520

THOMPSON DANIEL 3166520

JONES ATO 3163320

FIANU JULIUS SELASI 3162920

LECTURER: DR. E. A. ADJEI

 INSTRUCTOR: MR. ADOMAKO

ABSTRACT
Choking phenomena of compressible flows through an axisymmetric convergent nozzle have been theoretically
and experimentally explored. Choking criteria of a convergent nozzle flow are proposed from experiment and
theory. A nozzle of a variable length from the inlet to exit has been used for the purpose of the boundary layer
development on the nozzle wall. Pitot probe surveys at the nozzle exit plane as well as static pressure
measurements along the nozzle wall have been performed. The experimental results of the choking pressure ratio
and freestream Mach numbers at the nozzle exit plane when nozzle flow is just choked are compared with those
calculated by the flow model proposed. The present analytical values are in good quantitative agreement with the
experimental results.

INTRODUCTION
When one-dimensional isentropic flow through a convergent nozzle is accelerated by a reduction in back
pressure with certain fixed stagnation states at the upstream the flow velocity at the nozzle exit plane increases
monotonically until the velocity of sound is reached at the exit plane. The ratio of back pressure to upstream
stagnation pressure at which sonic velocity occurs at the nozzle exit plane is called the critical pressure ratio.
After the critical pressure ratio is attained, the entire flow characteristics in the nozzle upstream of the exit plane
are kept constant regardless of any further decrease in back pressure. This phenomenon is known as the flow
choking. When the flow is choked the mass flow rate depends only on the stagnation conditions upstream of the
nozzle and remains constant for all back pressures below the critical pressure. Therefore, when convergent
nozzles or convergent-divergent nozzles are used to measure mass flow rates as flow-metering devices based on
the choking phenomena, they are called critical nozzles.

OBJECTIVE
To demonstrate the phenomenon of choking.

METHOD
By increasing the flow rate through a convergent-divergent duct until choking occurs, and to then continue to
raise the flow rate beyond that point.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
 Armfield C1-MkII Compressible Flow Bench
 Convergent-Divergent Duct Test Section (supplied with C1-MkII)
 Thermometer for measuring atmosphere (ambient) temperature
 Barometer or similar for measuring barometric (ambient) pressure.
OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT
 Armfield IFD5 data logging device
TM
 Window PC withUSB port ∧Armfield C1-MkII Software

THEORY AND ASSUMPTIONS

The following assumptions are made throughout the theory sections presented in this manual:
a) Flow variables are uniform over a cross section perpendicular to the flow direction, i.e., the duct can be
considered to be a single stream tube with one-dimensional flow.
b) Flow is steady.
c) Potential energy changes are negligible.
The basic equations of fluid flow may then be stated as follows:
Continuity equation:
ṁ=ρaV =constant … (1)
Energy equation for flow:

( )
2
p V
ṁΔ + +c v T =Q −W sℎaft −W friction … (2)
ρ 2

Momentum equation for cylindrical duct

ṁdV =ρaVdV =−(adp +τPdx) … (3)
Equation of state for perfect gas:
p= ρRT … (4)
Relation between specific heats and gas constant:
c p=c v + R … (5)
Relation between pressure and density for an isentropic process:
p
γ
=constant … (6)
ρ
Where:
cp
γ=
cv

In addition, for incompressible fluid flow, the usual friction loss equation will be used:

Δp 4 fl V 2
= … (7)
ρ 2d
(where Δp is the loss of pressure along a length of cylindrical pipe of diameter d )
For a smooth pipe:
f =ØRe … (8)
 where the Reynolds number:
ρVd
ℜ=
μ
From the standard equations presented above;
The frictionless flow of an ideal gas in the absence of shaft work and heat transfer is given by equating (2) and
(4):

2
p V P
+ + cv =constant
ρ 2 ρR

cp
From Equation (5) and γ= :
cv
cv 1
γ=
R γ−1
Therefore:

p
ρ(1+
1
γ −1
V2
)
+ =constant
2
i.e.,

γ p V2
∙ + =constant
γ−1 ρ 2
Or alternatively:
2
γ V
∙ RT + =constant
γ−1 2
Therefore:

γ patmos γ ptℎroat V 12
∙ = ∙ +
γ − 1 ρatmos γ − 1 ρtℎroat 2
 ∴ V 1= (
√ 2 γ patmos p tℎroat
∙ −
γ − 1 ρ atmos ρtℎroat
)

√
γ−1
2 γ p atmos γ
¿ ∙ (1− r )
γ −1 ρatmos
pinlet
Using Equation (6) and r = :
patmos
1
ṁ=ρ inlet atℎroat V tℎroat =r γ ρ atmos atℎroat V tℎroat

√
2 γ +1
2 γ patmos γ
¿ ρatmos a tℎroat ∙ (r − r γ )
γ − 1 ρ atmos

Inspection of this expression shows that ṁ will be zero for r = 1 and r = 0; hence a maximum value of ṁ may be
expected for some critical value, r c , of r.
For maximum ṁ:

( )
2 γ +1
d γ γ
r −r
dr
Hence:

( )
γ
2
rc= γ− 1
γ+1

For air, γ = 1.4 and hence r c = 0.528.

An alternative expression for V 1 is:

V 1=
√ 2 γ ptℎroat
∙
γ − 1 ρtℎroat ( r
1
γ−1
γ
−1
)
( )
γ
2
Putting r ¿ r c = γ−1
:
γ +1

V 1=
√ 2 γ ptℎroat γ +1
∙
γ − 1 ρtℎroat 2
−1 ( )
¿
√ γ ptℎroat
ρtℎroat
=c

p tℎroat
i.e., when is critical, M tℎroat =1.
ρtℎroat
PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT
Equipment Setup
 If required, measure the diameters of the convergent-divergent duct inlet, throat and outlet using calipers
or similar. Default values are provided in the Description section which will produce acceptable results.
 If required, fit the test section to the motor/compressor inlet. See Fitting a test section (section 11.2.2).
 Connect pressure sensor P1 to read the pressure differential patmos − ptℎroat by connecting a tube between
the throat pressure tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket labelled P1 on the control console.
Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere.
 Connect pressure sensor P2 to read the pressure differential patmos − poutlet by connecting a tube between
the outlet pressure tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket labelled P2 on the control console.
Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere

 Connect pressure sensor P3 to read the pressure differential patmos − pinlet by connecting a tube between
the inlet pressure tapping on the test section to the lowermost socket labelled P3 on the control
console. Leave the upper socket open to atmosphere.
 The liquid-in-glass thermometers are NOT required for this exercise and may be removed for safety.
 Check that the equipment is connected to a suitable electrical supply and switched on, and that the
displays on the control console are illuminated.
 If using the optional data logger and software, check that the IFD5 is connected to the 50-way
connector on the control console, and to the USB port on the PC. Run the Armfield software.
Procedures

 Using a thermometer and a barometer or equivalent, measure and record the ambient temperature and
pressure of the laboratory or test area. If necessary, convert the units of these measurements to match the
units of the sensors on the C1- MkII (i.e., Centigrade for temperature and kN m− 2 for pressure).
 If using the optional Armfield data logger and software then the experiment is fully described in the
software. The procedure may differ to that presented below, and students should therefore refer to the
software in preference to the procedure here.
 Adjust the compressor speed to give a pressure P3 of 50 Pa. Record the sensor readings for P1, P2 and P3
from the control console displays.
 Adjust the compressor speed to give a pressure P3 of 100 Pa. Repeat the sensor readings.
 Continue to adjust the compressor speed to give pressure increments for P3 of 50 Pa, recording the
console display values each time, until maximum compressor speed is reached.
 If there is sufficient time, the compressor speed may be decreased in steps of 50 Pa to give a second
series of sensor readings.
 Reduce the compressor speed to 0 and switch off the equipment.
Choked Conditions
  If poutlet is initially the same as patmos and is progressively reduced, the throat pressure ptℎroat will fall until
p tℎroat
the ratio is critical and the mass flow rate will rise to the maximum value.
p atmos
 If poutlet is further reduced, ptℎroat will remain at the value r c ∙ patmos and ṁ will remain at its maximum
value. ptℎroat cannot fall below r c ∙ patmos , since this would require the Mach number to be unity at some
section in the convergent portion, which is impossible.
 Alternatively, it may be argued that once the speed of sound – the speed of propagation of pressure
changes – is reached at the throat, no further pressure reductions can be propagated back to the throat
from downstream.
 For values of poutlet lower than that for which ṁ first reaches its maximum, the duct is said to be ‘choked’.
ILLUSTRATION OF SETUP
Test section: Convergent/divergent duct (Supplied with C1- MKII)

 The C1 MklI is supplied complete with a convergent-divergent (Venturi) test section (6). When
using this or the other optional test sections, the compressor is used as an exhauster: air enters the
duct from the atmosphere and is sucked into the inlet of the compressor. The flow rate is controlled
by the previously described inverter linked to the motor. The intake is thus unobstructed, and the
flow rate can be determined from the depression at the first parallel-sided section, ( patmos − pinlet )
 A substantial pressure recovery is obtained in the divergent portion of diffuser and a throat
depression patmos − ptℎroat is thereby achieved which is several times the pressure difference
developed by the compressor itself. At high throttle openings the speed of sound is reached and the
duct becomes choked.
 Tappings for pressure measurement are provided at the inlet, throat and outlet. Any tapping not
used in an experiment should be blanked off with the rubber stoppers provided.
 Flow metering section diameter d 1:25.4 mm
 Upstream (throat) pipe diameter d 2: 9.5 mm
 Downstream pipe diameter d 3: 25.4 mm

EXPIREMENT
 Front View

Top View

RESULT AND CALCULATIONS

The following headings are suggested for tabulating results:

−2
Barometric Pressure, patmos =101.3 kN m
Atmospheric Temperature ¿ 25 ℃
Pou5et

Atmospheric Density ρatmos =1.204 kg m− 3

P1 = 𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_throat
P2 = 𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

P1 P2 P3 Mass flow rate (ṁ)

 3.2 0.5 50
1.562746

5.7 0.9 100

2.221794

8.3 1.2 150

2.722564

11.1 1.6 200

3.138778

15.3 2.2 250

3.499984

21 3 300
3.834041

27.3 3.9 350

4.141237

34.6 4.9 400

4.427169

46.3 6.8 450

4.695722

54.2 9.8 500

4.949725

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RESULTS

 A Graph of ṁ Against 𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (P2)
6

3
ṁ

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝 _𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (P2)

A Graph of 𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 (P1)

against 𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (P2)

60
𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝_𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 (P1

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝑝_𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠−𝑝 _𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (P2
 Mass flow rate (ṁ) p tℎroat
p atmos

1.562746 0.968411

2.221794 0.943731

2.722564 0.918065

3.138778 0.890424

3.499984 0.848963

3.834041 0.792695

4.141237 0.730503

4.427169 0.65844 CONCLUSIONS

4.695722 0.542942 Effects of boundary layers at the
4.949725 0.464956 nozzle exit on the choking
phenomena of convergent nozzle
flows have been demonstrated theoretically and experimentally. A simple flow model for predicting the choking
criteria of convergent nozzle flows were proposed using a mass weighted averaging technique. The choking
pressure ratio defined as the ratio of back pressure to plenum pressure was obtained from the wall pressures at
far upstream of the nozzle exit. Wall pressures near the nozzle exit are affected changes downstream of the
nozzle exit even when the nozzle flow is choked.
Choking criteria can be characterized by the boundary layer thickness at the nozzle to the duct radius. A
comparison of theory and experiment indicates that the choking pressure ratio decreases with increasing
boundary layer relative thickness. Also, the freestream Mach numbers at the nozzle exit plane are beyond unity
and increase with an increase in the boundary layer relative thickness.