PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

Flow Regime Review

Review

This topic shows how the Bernoulli equation, which governs the pressure-
velocity relationship in a Newtonian fluid is developed from the energy
equation based on the law of conservation of energy. The term Reynolds
number is introduced to define whether laminar or turbulent flow is present
(whether viscous or inertial forces predominate). Equations for shear rate
and pipe velocity profile in Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluids are presented
along with those for shear stress, pressure gradient and shear rate for pipe
and annular flow for the Power Law, Bingham Plastic and Herschel Bulkley
fluid models.

Content
Flow Dynamics Of Drilling Fluids

Fluids are generally characterised by their Shear stress-Shear rate relationships. For
Newtonian fluids, this is a direct relationship with the shear stress being directly
proportional to the shear rate. For such fluids, the viscosity is nominally constant.
However, for non-Newtonian fluids the flow behaviour is complicated by variation of
apparent viscosity with rate of shear or flow. Consequently, Newtonian equations are
altered for applications to typical drilling/completion fluids. Thus the concept of flow
dynamics here is to provide a better understanding of the pressure-velocity behaviour of
drilling fluids in a well as a basis for evaluating and controlling the theology and
hydraulics of drilling fluid/completion fluid systems. Through this understanding, it may
be possible to:
• determine the effective annular viscosities of drilling fluids;
• make accurately determine flow regimes and pressure losses;
• determine the approximate shear rates in bit nozzles and the corresponding bit
hydraulics for effective hole cleaning;
• determine the upper and lower limits of equivalent circulation densities.

Pressure - Velocity Relationship

Fluid flow through a pipe or an annular geometry is generally governed by the Law of
conservation of energy, given as:

{[Internal fluid Energy] + [Expansion/Contraction Energy] + [Kinetic Energy] +

[Potential Energy] + [Heat added to system] + [Work done by system]}IN-OUT = 0

The Energy Equation used to describe this relationship is given below:

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 1

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

mv 1 mgz1 mv 2 mgz 2
u1 + p1V1 + + + Q + Ws = u2 + p 2 V2 + +
2g g 2g g

vdv dp g
du + + + dz + dQ + dW = 0
g ρ gc
p
du = dH − d 
ρ
dp
dH = Tds +
ρ

dp p  p  vdv g
Equation 1 ∴ Tds + − d  + d  + + dz + dQ + dW = 0
ρ ρ  ρ  gc gc
Tds = −(dQ + dE w )

dp vdv
∴ + + dz − dE w = 0
ρ g

V = system volume, H = system enthalpy, z = elevation,

s = entropy, T = temperature, E w represents the losses

This is called the Bernoulli Equation.

Fluid flow through pipes or annular conduit is considered either laminar or turbulent. In
laminar flow, the fluid particles are said to move in streamline version parallel to the
direction of flow. In turbulent flow, secondary irregularities and eddies are imposed on
the regular flow pattern with fluid particles moving in chaotic version. The computation of
pressure drops in any flow conduit therefore requires a knowledge of the flow regime
prevailing. Definition of the flow regime is governed by the Reynolds Number defined as:
928ρvd
Re =
µ

q
for pipe Flow : v =
2.45d2
q
for annular Flow : v =
( 2
2.45 dh − dop
2
)
Equation 2
v = average flow velocity, ft/sec
d = pipe internal diameter
ρ = fluid density, ppg
µ = fluid viscosity
q = circulation rate, gpm
dh = hole diameter
dop = pipe outside diameter

In flowing through the pipe system, a fluid experiences a shear stress as a result of the
pressure drop depending on the rate of shear which is a function of the flow velocity.
Thus for a given Newtonian fluid flow in pipe, the shear stress can be defined as:

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 2

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

d∆p
τ= for Newtonian or non - Newtonian fluids
4 ∆L

∆p µv
for pipe flow : =
∆L 1500d 2
∆p µv
for annular flow : =
∆L 1000(d 2 − d1 )2
Equation 3
τ = shear stress
d = pipe diameter
∆p = pressure drop
L = pipe length

The shear rate for pipe flow is defined as:

8v
γ= for Newtonian fluids
d

96v
Equation 4 which in field units is given as : γ =
d

144v
and for annular flow is given as : γ =
d 2 − d1
For a Power law non - Newtonian fluid, the velocity-shear rate relationship is:
8v  1 + 3n 
Equation 5 γ=  4n 
d  
In a typical flow through a conduit, there is a velocity profile as shown in Figure 1 with
velocity increasing from zero at pipe wall to a maximum at the middle of the pipe. This
velocity profile for Newtonian fluid can be represented mathematically by the equation:
f  r 2
Equation 6 u= Re× v 1 −   
8   R  

Thus as can be observed v=o at r=R and is maximum at r=0.

For a Power law non-Newtonian fluid, the velocity profile equation can be defined as:
 g dP 1 / n n  (1+ n) / n (1+ n) / n
Equation 7 u =  −  R
2K dL  1 + n 
[ −r ]
 
There are also specific equations for the other flow models.
Figure 1. Laminar Conical Flow.

flow velocity = 0

vmax flow velocity = maximum

Le

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 3

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

For laminar flow the profile is usually conical, but for heavy muds a flat profile at the
middle could be obtained resulting in what is called plug flow (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Plug Flow.

Plug Profile
vmax

In turbulent flow, there is no viscous shear of the fluid layers. Fluid velocity at the pipe or
hole wall is zero but the velocity at the core of the pipe is essentially flat. As turbulence
increases, the pressure loss increases leading to increase in the equivalent circulation
density. Thus as depicted from the above equation, the shear stress will be maximum at
hole wall and almost zero in the middle except for the region of unsheared plug in plug
flow where the shear stress could be zero over a range of length.

From the point of view of hole cleaning or fluid displacement, especially for cement-mud
displacement, it is often desirable to have a flattened velocity profile which increases the
sweep efficiency in the annulus.

Velocity Profile in The Annulus

Concentric Annulus

The velocity profile on both sides of a pipe annulus is normally uniform and at equal
level of height and magnitude with the velocity increasing from zero at hole-wall to a
maximum at the middle of each annular clearance. It further decreases to zero at the
inner pipe wall. The presence of a velocity profile implies that there is a shear stress
profile and a shear rate/viscosity profile. The shear stress is highest at hole wall and
lowest at the middle, while the shear rate is highest at the middle and lowest close to the
pipe wall. Thus any particle in the annulus will be experiencing a different rate of shear
and a different viscosity depending on where it is within the annular cross-section.
The average flow velocity of the fluid is constant as shown in Figure 3 and it is
generally greater than the velocity at the pipe wall and normally less than the velocity at
the middle depending on flow regime and fluid properties. For standard laminar flow, this
is what is obtained. For plug flow, in the plug flow region, there is no shearing of fluid
layers and as the width increases, low velocity parts of the stream decreases.
For this case and turbulence, the average fluid velocity may be equal to the velocity at
the middle of the annulus or just marginally less.

Eccentric Annulus

In the eccentric annular condition, the flow rate is highest in the largest clearance. Thus
the velocity profile is distinctly different for the two annular clearances. The impact on
hole cleaning and cement displacement especially in highly deviated wells is very
profound, as will be discussed later.

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 4

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

Figure 3. Concentric and Eccentric Annular Profiles.

Concentric
Eccentric

Pressure-Flow Relationship

Predicting the flow velocity profile obviously depends on the knowledge of the flow
regime and the rheological behaviour of the fluids. Three of the key major models
describing the flow behaviour are:
• Power Law;
• Bingham Plastic Model;
• Herschel-Bulkley Model.

For the different non-Newtonian fluids, the shear stress-shear rate relationships to
pressure drop and flow velocities are given as:

Power Law

d∆p
Shear Stress as defined previously in Equation 3 is τ =
4 ∆L

For Pipe Flow:

n
3+ 1 
∆P Kv n  n
Pressure gradient : = 
∆L 144000d (1+n )  0.0416 
 
Equation 8
Shear rate : γ =
24v
d
(3+ 1
n
)
For Annular Flow:
n
 2+ 1 
∆P Kv n  n
Pressure gradient : =
∆L 144000d (1+n )  0.0208 
 
Equation 9
Shear rate : γ =
48v
d2 − d1
(2+ 1
n
)

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 5

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Flow Regime Review

Bingham Plastic

For Pipe Flow:

∆P µpv τy
Pressure gradient : = 2
+
∆L 1500d 225d
Equation 10
96v τy
Shear rate : γ = + 160
d µp

For Annular Flow:

∆P µpv τy
Pressure gradient : = +
∆L 1000(d 2 − d1 ) 200(d 2 − d1 )
Equation 11
144v τy
Shear rate : γ = + 240
d 2 − d1 µp

Herschel Bulkley

Pressure drop can be estimated from the following:

Equation 12
  D * dP   
2
 D * dP  
2
  − −
y   y 
τ τ
  g 1 / n    4L  +  2τ  4L  
  c 1+n / n      y 
8Q   K   D * dP    (1 + 3n ) / n   (1 + 2n ) / n 
= − τy  

πD 3   D * dP  3  4L   *    
      

  4L    2
τy 
+ 
 (1 + n) / n 

© The Robert Gordon University 2001 6