Chapter 1

Electric charges and fields

 Electrostatics
The branch of physics, which deals with the study of charges at rest, the forces between the
static charges fields and potentials due to these charges, is called electrostatics or static
electricity.

 Conductors, insulators and Dielectrics

The substances or the materials which exist in the nature are divided in the three categories as
follows:-
I. Conductors
II. Insulators
III. Dielectrics

 Conductors
A substance which can be used to carry or conduct the electric charges from one place to
another is called a conductor.
E,g. all metals like silver, gold, copper etc., in this the silver is the best conductor. Even
human beings are good conductor of electricity. The liquid conductor includes salt
solutions, acids, alkalis etc.
 Insulators
The materials which cannot conduct electricity e.g. they are poor conductor of electricity.
E.g. glass, plastic, rubber, wood etc.
They are called insulators because they prevent charge from going to the place where it is
not desired.
In insulators, each electron is attached or bounded to a particular atom and is not
free to move in the body of insulators. Therefore, electron doesn’t possess freely movable
charges.
 Dielectrics
Dielectric also known as insulators as it doesn’t conduct electricity but the main
difference between these two is, when dielectric is placed in the external electric field,
Induced charge appears on the surface of dielectric.

Hence we can define it as the insulating materials which transmit electric effects without
conducting.
Note:-
All dielectrics are insulators but all insulators are not dielectric.

 Origin of electric charge in Electrostatics

All matters are made up of atoms, a basic unit of matter or substance. Atom consists of
central core nucleus; electrons are surrounded by the nucleus which revolves around the
nucleus in circular orbit.
 Every atom is electrically neutral as the number of electrons and the protons inside the
atom are always same. Thus the materials are electrically neutral, they do not contain charges
but their charges are exactly balanced.
 The vast amount of charge in an object is usually hidden as the object contains equal amount
of positive charge and negative charge. With such an equality or balance of charge, the object
is said to be electrically neutral i.e., it contains no net charge.

 If the positive and negative charges are not balanced then we say that body is charged as there
is a net charge present in the body. Hence, to electrify or charge a neutral body, we need to add
or remove the extra charge.

The charges are also been produce by rubbing the two charges materials. This transfers the
charges from one material to other, which leads to charging.

The cause of charging is actual transfer of electrons from one material to the other. The
insulating material with lower work function loses electron and becomes positively charged
and vice-versa.

Note: -

In rubbing, the number of electrons that are transferred, is a very small fraction of the total
number of electrons in the material body. Hence, the charge acquired by friction is a very
small fraction of the total positive and negative charge content of the body.

Further, as only the less tightly bound electrons in the material body can be transferred from it
to another by rubbing, only under suitable conditions.

 Charging by induction
We know that charging occurs due to induction that is by rubbing two charged bodies.
In a charging by induction, a charged body A imparts to another charged body B, some charge
of opposite sign without any actual contact between A and B.

The steps involve in charging the metallic sphere by induction are shown in fig.,

a. To begin with, a metallic sphere on insulating stand is uncharged.

b. When a charged rod is brought near the uncharged metallic sphere, free electrons of the
sphere are attracted and start piling up at near end. The redistribution of charge takes place
instantaneously and stops as soon as net force on the free electrons in the metallic sphere
becomes zero.
 c. When the sphere is grounded, i.e., it is connected to earth by conducting wire, electrons
from the ground to the sphere and neutralises the positive charge on the further end of the
sphere and negative charge at the near end of the sphere remains bound there due to
attractive force of glass rod.
d. When the sphere is disconnected from the ground, the negative charge continues to be held
on near end.
e. When the glass rod is removed, the negative charge spreads uniformly over the sphere.
Similar steps involved when a negative charge rod is used for the charging the sphere
positively by induction.

 Electric charges
According to William Gilbert, charge is something possessed by material objects that
make it possible for them to exert electrical force and respond to electrical forces.
The three most common elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons having
masses.

 Kinds of Electric charges

i. A glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk brought close to a suspended glass rod rubbed
with silk repels the letter.
ii. The two pieces of silk cloth which the glass rods were rubbed also repels each other.
However, each glass rod attracts the silk piece with which it was rubbed.
iii. When a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk is made to touch two small pith balls
suspended by silk/nylon threads, the balls repel each other.

 Quantisation of Electric charges

The quantisation of electric charge is the property by virtue of which all free charges are
integral multiple of a basic unit of charge represented by e.

Thus charges q of a body is always given by

Where n is any integer &

The cause of quantisation is that only integral number of electrons can be transferred from one
body to another, on rubbing.

Note:
Quantisation of charge is meaningful only at the microscopic level, where the charges
involved an order of a few tens or hundreds of e; they can be counted.

 Additivity of charge

This is a property by virtue of which total charge of a system is obtained simply by

adding algebraically all the charges present anywhere on the system.

If system of charges then the charge of the system

is =
 Coulomb’s law
According to this law, the force of interaction between any two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
| || |

| || |
F
| || |
F

Where

And

 Coulomb’s Law in vector form

We know that ;
| || |
F
As force is a vector, it is better to write
coulomb’s law
in the vector notation.
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

The vector leading from is⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

& The vector leading from is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

̂ &̂
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Coulomb’s free law between two point charges and located at ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ in vacuum is
expressed as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂

Similarly, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂

 Dielectric constant OR Relative Permittivity

When the charges are situated in a medium other than free space, the force between them is

Where
 Again, the force between the same two charges held the same distance apart in vacuum is

Where

Where

 Electric field
Electric field due to a given charge as the space around the charge in which electrostatic
force attractive or repulsion due to the charge can be experience by any other charge.
If a test charge experiences no free at a point, the electric field at that point must be zero.

Here, Electric field intensity OR Electric field which is denoted by (E) is given by,
( )
⃗( )

It is the strength of electric field at the point, which is defined as “the force experienced by
unit positive charge placed at that point.”
The SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C (newton/coulomb) .

 Electric field due to a point charge

Suppose we have to calculate electric field intensity at any point P due to point change Q
at O, where
Imagine small positive test chare at P.
According to Coulomb’s Law, force at P is
̂
Where ̂ is unit vector directed from Q towards .

As ⃗

⃗ ̂

 Electric fields lines

Electrical field lines are the path, straight or curved such that tangent to it at any point gives
the direction of electric fields intensity at that point.
 i. The electric field lines are moving radially outside for +ve charge whereas
ii. The electric field lines are moving radially inward for –ve charge.

 Properties of Electric field lines

1. Electric field lines are discontinuous curves. They start from positively charged body.
2. If there is a single charge, the electric field lines may start or end at infinity.
3. Tangent to the electric field line at any point gives the direction of electric intensity at the
point.
4. No two electric lines of force can intersect each other.
5. The electric field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6. The electric field lines contract longitudinally.

 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated as by
some small distance.

 Dipole moment :-
Dipole moment ( ⃗ ) is a measure of the strength of electric dipole. It is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is equal to product of the magnitude of either charge or the distance between
them.
⃗ ( )
The SI unit of dipole moment is C-m (Coulomb- meter)

 Field intensity on Axial line of electric dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges, -q & +q separated at
a distance of “2a”.
We have to calculate electric intensity ⃗ at a point P on the axial line of the dipole.

If ⃗ is the electric intensity at P due to charge –q at A

|⃗ | along PA
( )

Suppose ⃗ is the electric intensity at P due to charge +q at B

|⃗ | along BP
( )
As ⃗ and ⃗ are collinear vectors acting in opposite direction and | ⃗ | |⃗ |
|⃗ | |⃗ | |⃗ |

( ) ( )

[ ]
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
[ ]
( ) ( )
 [ ]
( ) ( )

( )( )
[ ]
( ) ( )

|⃗ | [ ] Where
( ) ( )

If dipole is short,
|⃗ | [ ]
The direction of ⃗ is along BP produced
Clearly
|⃗ |

 Electric field intensity on Equatorial line of Electrical Dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of
two point charges – q or + q separated by
a small distance with centre at O.
We have to find electric intensity ⃗ at
a point P on the equatorial line of the
Dipole, where .
If ⃗ is the electric intensity at
P due to charge – q at A, then

|⃗ |
( )

⃗ is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

⃗ has two rectangular components

along ( )
along
Similarly
If ⃗ is the electric intensity at P due to charge + q at B, then
|⃗ |
( )
⃗ is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

From fig.
|⃗ | |⃗ |

| |
 ( )

( )
( )

( )
( ) √

( )

|⃗ | Where P = q.2a
( )
If dipole is short,
|⃗ |
Clearly
|⃗ |

 Dipole in a uniform Two Dimension Electric field

Consider an electric dipole consisting of
two equal and opposite point charges –q
at A and +q at B separated at distance
of (2a)having dipole moment
|⃗| ( )
Let this dipole be held in a uniform external
electric field ⃗ at an angle with direction
⃗.
Force on charge +q at A is q ⃗ along ⃗
Force on charge –q at B is ⃗ along opposite to ⃗

Since ⃗ is uniform, therefore, net force on the dipole is (qE-qE=0). However, the forces are
equal, unlike and parallel, acting all different points, therefore, they form a couple.

( )( )
( )

⃗ ⃗
The direction of is given by right handed screw rule and is perpendicular to ⃗ and ⃗ .
Unit of is N-m.
 Potential energy of Dipole in a uniform Electric Dipole
Potential energy of dipole is the
energy possessed by the dipole by virtue of
its particular position in the electric field.
Suppose an electric dipole moment ⃗
is oriented at an angle with the direction
of uniform external electric field⃗⃗⃗ .

Torque acting on the dipole is

Small work done in rotating the dipole through a small angle d against the torque is

Small work done in rotating the dipole from orientation to is

∫ ∫

[ ]
[ ]
Cases:-

1. When dipole is initially aligned along the electric field i.e. & , then
[ ]
2. When the dipole is initially at right angle to ⃗ i.e. and we have to set it angle with
⃗ i.e. , then
[ ]

 Area vector

The vector associated with energy area element of a closed surface is taken to be in the
direction of the direction of the outward normal.
An area element vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ at a point on a closed surface can be written as
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ( )

where is magnitude of the area element.

 Electric flux
Electrical flux over an area in an electric field represents the total number of field lines
crossing this area.
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Unit of is

 Gauss Theorem / Gauss law in Electrostatics

According to this theorem ;

The surface integral of electrostatic field E produced by any sources by any source over any
closed surface enclosing a volume V in vacuum i.e. total electric flux over the closed
surface S in vacuum is times the total charge (Q) contained inside S i.e.

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
The charges inside S may be point charges as well as continuous charge distribution. There
is no distribution to total electric flux from the charges outside S. further the location of Q
inside S doesn’t affect the value of surface integral.
The surface chosen to calculate the surface integral is called Gaussian Surface.
Proof:-
Suppose an isolated positive point charge q is situated at the centre O of a sphere of radius r.

According to Coulombs Law,

Electric field at point P on the surface of sphere is Electric field at point P on the surface of
sphere is
̂
⃗

where ̂ is a unit vector.

Consider small area element ds of the sphere around P. Let it be represented by the ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
̂
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) (̂ )

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) ( ̂ ̂)

As normal to sphere at every point is along the radius vector at that point ,( ̂ ̂ )
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∮

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , which proves Gauss Theorem.

If there are point charges lying inside the surface, each will
contribute to the electric flux, independent of others.

( )

Where

 Applications of Gauss Theorem

1. Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire :-

Consider an infinitely long thin wire with uniform linear charge density . The electric field
at every point in the plane cutting the wire normally is radial and its magnitude depends on the
radial distance r.
Let us consider a Gaussian Surface, a right circular cylinder of radius r and length l with an
infinitely long line of charge.
The magnitude of electric intensity ⃗ at every point on the curved surface of the cylinder is the
same, because all such points are the same distance from the line charge.

Also,
⃗ and ̂ along outwards normal to curved surface are in the same direction, so that
Contribution of curved surface of cylinder towards electric flux,
∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∮⃗ ̂ ∮ ( )

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∮

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
Since

( )
 as

If

2. Electric field intensity due to an uniformly charged spherical shell :-

a. :-
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R with centre O. let +q be the charge distributed
uniformly over the surface of the shell.
Imagine a sphere S1 with a centre O and radius r. The surface of the sphere is Gaussian Surface
at every point at which electric intensity ⃗ is the same, directed radially outwards.
According to Gauss Theorem,

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∮⃗ ̂

( )

a point on the surface of the shell ,

If is surface density of charge on the sell,

b.

as charge inside spherical shell is zero.

The field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.

3. Electric field intensity due to thin infinite Plane Sheet of charge:-

Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge. Let be the surface charge on the sheet.
We have to calculate electric field intensity ⃗ at any point P,r from sheet.
 Let us imagine a cylinder a across sectional area ds around P & length 2r, piercing through
the sheet. At the two cylindrical edges P, Q, ⃗ and outward normal ̂ are parallel to each other.
Electrical flux over the edges = ⃗ ̂
The total electric flux over the flux the entire surface of the cylinder = 2E ds
As area of the sheet intercepted by the cylinder is ds, therefore,
Total change enclosed by the cylinder =

According to Gauss Law,

If one more sheet is added, then

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