Basic Idea of Electromagnetisms

Scalar quantities. These have magnitude only and do not involve direction. To specify a scalar quantity
completely.
Scalar can be specified by a single number.
Example: mass, volume, density, temperature, electric potential, charge, and so forth. They are indicated by
non-bold face letters, for instance, S.

Vector quantities. These have both magnitude and direction. For the complete specification of a vector
quantity.
Example: velocity, acceleration, force, stress, displacement, electric force, magnetic induction, and so on.
They are indicated by boldface type, for instance, V.
 DEL OPERATOR
The differential vector operator — called del or nabla has many important applications in
physical problems. It is capable of differentiating both vector and scalar functions with equal
ease. It is defined as:

GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FUNCTION

If the vector differential operator — is operated on a scalar function f(x, y, z), this
operation is known as gradient of a scalar function and abbreviated as Grad ϕ. It is
defined as

The grad ϕ is a vector quantity. A familiar example is the electric field vector E which is the
negative gradient of electric potential V.
DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
The second type of del operation is the multiplication of del operator by another
vector so that the resultant is the dot product or scalar product. The operation is
called the divergence of a vector A and is given by,

div A =

where Ax, Ay and Az are the components of vector A in the direction of x,

y and z, respectively.
CURL OF A VECTOR
Another important operation with the vector operator — is to cross it with a vector.
The curl of a vector A is defined by

This may be written conveniently in the determinant form

A=2x i+3y j+4z k
Gauss theorem
If s is a closed surface surrounding the volume V, the divergence for any vector
A is expressed as,

where ds = n ds, ds an element of area on s and ˆn the unit outward normal to s.

Stokes theorem
If C is the closed contour around the edge of the open surface S, then Stokes
theorem states that

Basic Laws of Electricity and Magnetism

Coulomb’s law
The force on a charge due to another charge is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the separation squared
Q1 Q2 𝑄1𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
r
𝑘
permittivity of free space

Opposite charges attract

Like charges repel
 Electrostatic force and Electric field
The electrostatic force is a force that acts at a distance, even when the objects are
not in contact with one another.
An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding

When another charge q is brought at some point P, the field acts on it and
produces a force. The electric field produced by the charge Q at a point r is given
as

Q1
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (OR ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL)

• It is 1.5 volts battery

• The electric potential difference between the ends is 1.5 volts
Electric potential difference is the difference between two points, is the
work in Joules needed to move 1 C of charge between those points
W=q×V
W work done in J
Q charge in C
V potential difference in V (volts)
Electric potential at a point in the electric field is defined as the work done by
an external agent in carrying a unit positive test charge from infinity to that
point against the electric force of the field.
CONDUCTION AND DISPLACEMENT CURRENTS
In electromagnetic theory, we have the magnetic field produced due to time-varying electric
field leading to the displacement current.
➢ current density is defined as current per unit area.

Conduction Current
• Conduction current is due to drift of electric charges in a conductor when an electric field is
applied.
• Let E be the electric field strength applied across a linear conductor of length l and cross-
sectional area A.
• A current i flows through the conductor and V be the potential difference between the end
points of the conductor.
J1 is the conduction current per unit area referred to as the conduction current density and is
directly proportional to the electric field intensity.
Displacement Current
• Ampere’s law in the original form is valid only if any electric fields
present are constant in time
• Maxwell modified the Ampere’s law for time varying electric fields
• Maxwell added an additional term which includes a factor called the
displacement current
• Magnetic fields are produced both by conduction currents and by time-
varying electric fields
• Consider the case of a capacitor of capacitance C, charged by applying a voltage V across its
ends. Then, the current through the capacitor is

where Q is the charge on the capacitor plates.

In the case of a parallel plate capacitor,

where A is the cross sectional area of the plates, d the separation between the plates and ε the
dielectric constant of the medium. Electric field strength
where D is the electric displacement density and J2 is called displacement current density,
representing the current which directly passes through the capacitor

Total current density is,

The concept of displacement current is very helpful in explaining the magnetic

fields in free space due to time varying electric fields.
Current Density and the Continuity Equation
• Current is motion of charges. The total current flowing out of some
volume must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge within the
volume.

where ρ is the charge density.

The net amount of charge which crosses a unit area perpendicular is defined as
current density.

• Let a volume V is enclosed by a surface S, J ⋅dS will

represent the charge leaving volume V through a
surface element dS in unit time
Using Gauss divergence theorem

It is called equation of continuity. It states

that current flowing out of a given volume
must be equal to the rate of decrease of
charge within the volume.

For stationary current, ρ is constant.

The time varying magnetic field gives rise to electric field and time varying
electric field gives rise to magnetic field.
Maxwell explained this one through displacement current.
The electromagnetic field is described in terms of a set of four equations
which are known as Maxwell’s equation.
 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. Gauss law of electrostatics: This law states that “the total electric flux ( ) emerging out of
closed surface is equal to 1/0 times the net charge ‘q’ enclosed by the surface.” or the surface
integral of the normal component of electric field E over any closed surface is equal to the net
charge enclosed within that volume.

2. Gauss law of Magneto statics: This law states that the magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero.

where B is magnetic flux and B is magnetic flux density.

3. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction: This law states that whenever the magnetic
lines of force are cut by a closed circuit, an induced current or the induced emf is developed in
the circuit. This is called electromagnetic induction.
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the negative rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit. If B be the magnetic flux linked with the circuit at any
instant ‘t’ and ‘e’ be the induced emf, then

4. Ampere’s Law: This law states that the amount of work done in carrying a unit magnetic
pole one around a closed arbitrary path linked with the current is 0 times the current ‘i’.

This is Ampere’s law for the magnetic field due to steady current.
 MAXWELL’S ELECTROMAGNETIC EQUATIONS:
Maxwell formulated the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the form of four fundamental equations. The
behavior of time dependent electromagnetic fields is described by a set of equations known as Maxwell’s
equation. The four laws of electricity and
magnetism are
i. Gauss law of electrostatics
ii. Gauss law of magnetism
iii. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
iv. Ampere’s law of magnetic field due to steady currents.
The differential form of Maxwell equation are given by
DERIVATION OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
DERIVATION OF FIRST EQUATIONS
The differential forms of Maxwell's equations can be obtained from the integral forms as
follows:
1
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝜌 + 𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝜀0

Polarization charge density p =-div P

1
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝜌 − 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝜀0

ර 𝜀0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 − න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑉

Using Gauss divergence theorem to change the surface integral into volume integral, we get

‫𝜀 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬0 𝐸 𝑑𝑉 = ‫ 𝑉𝑑 𝜌 ׬‬− ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑃 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬

‫𝜀 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬0 𝐸 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑉𝑑 𝜌 ׬‬ 𝜀0E+P=D electric displacement vector

‫𝑉𝑑 𝜌 ׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝐷 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬

‫ 𝐷 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬− 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 0 ‫𝜀 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬0 𝐸 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑉𝑑 𝜌 ׬‬

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 − 𝜌 = 0
div D = 𝜌
∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌 𝜀0 ∇. 𝐸 = 𝜌
∇. 𝐸 = 𝜌/ 𝜀0
DERIVATION OF SECOND EQUATIONS

But according to Gauss divergence theorem

‫ = 𝑉𝑑 𝐵 𝑣𝑖𝑑 ׬‬0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵 = 0

∇. 𝐵 = 0
 DERIVATION OF THIRD EQUATIONS
𝜕𝐵
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction it is called as e.m.f.
induced in a closed a loop is defined as negative rate of change of magnetic flux

But magnetic flux 𝛟 =‫𝐵 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑑
𝑒 = − න 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝐵
𝑒 = −න . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
e.m.f can also be computed by calculating the work done in carrying a unit charge round
the closed loop C. Thus if E is the electric field intensity at a small element dl of loop we
have
𝑒 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
𝜕𝐵
න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − න . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
From the Stoke’s theorem to change line integral into surface integral we get

𝜕𝐵
න 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = − න . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐵
න 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 + . 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑡
 𝜕𝐵
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 + =0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐵
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡
Maxwell’s Fourth Equation: From Ampere’s law

Using Stokes theorem

 Maxwell’s Equations in vacuum
The vacuum is a linear, homogeneous, isotropic and dispersion less medium, Since there is no
current or electric charge is present in the vacuum,

These equations have a simple solution in-terms of traveling sinusoidal waves, with the electric and
magnetic fields direction orthogonal to each other and the direction of travel
 Maxwell equations in Non conducting isotropic medium
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 = ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵 = ∇. 𝐵 = 0
𝜕𝐵
Curl E= ∇ × 𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
Curl H= ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽 +
𝜕𝑡
In an isotropic dielectric (or non conducting isotropic medium) D=𝜀E, B=µH, J=E=0 and =0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸 = ∇. 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐻 = ∇. 𝐻 = 0
𝜕𝐻
Curl E= ∇ × 𝐸 = −µ
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
Curl H= ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜖
𝜕𝑡
 Maxwell equations in Anisotropic Non conducting medium
In anisotropic medium, electromagnetic field properties depend on direction. Let us
consider a non conducting non magnetic homogeneous anisotropic medium.
J=0; =0, and µ=µ0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 = ∇. 𝐷 = 0
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐻 = ∇. 𝐻 = 0
𝜕𝐻
Curl E= ∇ × 𝐸 = −µ0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
Curl H= ∇ × 𝐻 =
𝜕𝑡
ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0