Welcome to

BYJU’S Classes
Alternating
Current
 THE CURRENT WAR
Edison invented a compact electric bulb which
could glow for a sustained period of time
Edison was a proponent of DC which was the
prevalent form of electric current at that
time.
At the same time when Edison discovered
the electric bulb, a young student by the
name of Nicola Tesla came up with different
vision.
He believed that AC is the more efficient
form of current.
 THE CURRENT WAR

Tesla pitched his idea about AC motor to George Westinghouse, the richest person of
USA at that time, and told him that transmission of electricity would be more efficient
using AC.
George Westinghouse got impressed with Tesla’s idea and Tesla started building AC power
plants with the help of “Westinghouse Electric co.”.
 THE CURRENT WAR
EDISON electrocuted animals and human to show that AC was too dangerous to use.

Since Tesla continuously tried to transmit power at a large distance, either the current or
the voltage should be high, since 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 . If current is high, then there will be huge joule
heating (𝐼2𝑅). So, the only option to distribute large power was producing high voltage.
If voltage becomes high, then that would not be safe and this weakness was exploited by
Edison and he started anti AC campaign.
At the same time, transformers were invented and this helped Tesla a lot. Tesla started
using step up and step down transformer when it required to generate or reduce high
voltage.
Tesla-Westinghouse Niagara falls
power plant(1895)

It was Tesla who pitched in, and his AC made it possible and the Niagara project goes
to Westinghouse Electric co. Edison had to just watch it and the pivotal battle of the
current is won by Tesla’s AC.
If we take a video of tube light in slo-mo. We can see the light is not constant. It is
constantly fluctuating. This is because the current we get in our houses is AC.
An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct
current which flows only in one direction.
Direct Current(𝐷𝐶 )
𝑖
𝐷𝐶 Source
+
−

𝑡
𝑇/2 𝑇

Alternating Current (𝐴𝐶 )

𝑖
𝐴𝐶 Source

𝑡
𝑇/2 𝑇
 An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct
current which flows only in one direction.
𝑖

𝑇 𝑡 Square Wave 𝐴𝐶
𝑇 3𝑇 2𝑇
2 2

𝑇 𝑇 𝑡 Triangular Wave 𝐴𝐶
2
𝑖

𝑇 𝑇 𝑡 Sinusoidal 𝐴𝐶
2
Variation of current with time for four types of generators are shown in the figures.
Which amongst them can be called AC.
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴) 𝐵)
𝑡 𝑡

𝑖 𝑖
𝐶)
𝑡 𝐷) 𝑡

a b c d
only 𝐴 𝐴&𝐷 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 𝐴&𝐵
 𝑖 𝑖

𝐴) 𝐵) 𝑡
𝑡

𝑖 𝑖

𝐶) 𝐷) 𝑡
𝑡

In all the given cases, current is changing direction with time. Hence all these cases are
of alternating currents.

a b c d
only 𝐴 𝐴&𝐷 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 𝐴&𝐵
 𝑖
∆𝑞 𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡)
Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) =
∆𝑡 𝑡2
∆𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
Average current representations: 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = < 𝑖 > = (𝑖) 𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2

Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) for time varying current is,

𝑡2
∆𝑞 ‫𝑡𝑑𝑖 𝑡׬‬
1
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
 1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Average value of an AC is equal to that of DC for which the Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
amount of charge that flows in a given amount of time is the
same as that of AC. 𝑖
𝑡2 𝑖 𝐷𝐶
∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑞 = 𝑖 𝐷 𝐶 ∆ 𝑡
𝑡2
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
𝑡1

1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1

If ∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶

If 𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 , find average current in 2 𝑠 .

a b c d
12 𝐴 3𝐴 4𝐴 0𝐴
 1 𝑡2 𝑡1 = 0 𝑠
𝑖= 3𝑡 2 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2 = 2 𝑠

1 2 2
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 0

2
1 3𝑡 3 8
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = = 𝐴
2 3 0 2

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 4 𝐴

a b c d
12 𝐴 3𝐴 4𝐴 0𝐴
𝑖
+𝑞 +𝑞

−𝑞
𝑡
−𝑞 𝑇
∴ න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑞 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑖 0

+𝑞 1 𝑇
𝑡 𝑖 av = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 0
−𝑞 Δ𝑡 0

𝑖
𝑖𝑎𝑣 for full cycle of 𝐴𝐶 is zero
+𝑞
−𝑞
𝑡
 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

In this case, current is generated through the hydroelectric power plant, where water waves
at high speed hit the turbine that results in generation of AC current.
 𝑖
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For full cycle
1 𝑇 1 𝑡2
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
(𝑇 − 0) 0 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
−𝑖 0

1 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇 𝑖0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖0 − = cos 0 − cos 𝜔𝑇
𝑇 𝜔 0 𝑇𝜔

𝑖0 2𝜋
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = cos 0 − cos 2𝜋 = 0 𝜔=
𝑇𝜔 𝑇

𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =0

 𝑖
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For half cycle
𝑇/2
1 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜋/2 3𝜋/2
𝑇 −𝑖 0
−0 0
2

2 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇/2 2𝑖0 𝜔𝑇

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖0 − = cos 0 − cos
𝑇 𝜔 0 𝑇𝜔 2

2𝑖0 4𝑖0 2𝑖0

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = cos 0 − cos 𝜋 = =
𝑇𝜔 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇×
𝑇

2𝑖0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋
 𝑖
𝑖0

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
For full cycle 𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =0 −𝑖 0

2𝑖0
For half cycle 𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = These are true if and only if:
𝜋
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜀0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For half cycle 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋
 ( )
The procedure of finding the RMS value of any function is just doing the mathematical operation
in the reverse order of the name i.e., find square of the function ⇒ find its mean ⇒ find square
root.

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 > Root mean square (rms)

1 𝑡2 < 𝑥 2 > = 𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1

𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝜀2 >

1 𝑡2 2
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝜀 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1
 𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 >

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 > −𝑖 0

2
1 𝑇2 2 𝑖02 𝑇 2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇 0

𝑖02 𝑇 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 1 − cos 2𝜃

2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑑𝑡 sin2 𝜃 =
𝑇 0 2 2

𝑇
2
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑡−
2𝑇 2𝜔 0
 𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 >
𝑇
2
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔𝑡 2𝜋 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑡− 𝑇=
2𝑇 2𝜔 𝜔 −𝑖 0
0

2𝜋
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔 𝑖02
2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇− 𝜔 − 0 − sin 0 = T
2𝑇 2𝜔 2𝑇

2
𝑖02
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0 2𝑖0
2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
2 𝜋
𝑖0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀0 2𝜀0
2 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
2 𝜋
 The AC generated in power plant can be
transmitted over large distances using
transmission cables at high voltage.

This AC voltage is made usable as per the

voltage requirement of the users using step
up or step down transformers.
 Household current → sinusoidal AC (𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 220 𝑉

𝜀𝑎𝑣 = 0 𝑉

𝜀0 = 2𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜀0 = 2 × 220 = 311.12 𝑉 ≈ 311 𝑉

If problem states only 𝜀 (not 𝜀0 , 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝜀𝑎𝑣 )

then, consider it as 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
Heat produced in AC circuit through resistor 𝑅 in time 𝑡1 to 𝑡2
𝑡2
2 1 𝑡2 2
𝐻𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

Heat produced in DC circuit through resistor 𝑅 in time 𝑡1 to 𝑡2

𝑖𝐷𝐶
2
𝐻𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡

𝑖𝐷𝐶
 2
𝑡2 1 𝑡2 2
𝐻𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
2
𝐻𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
If we require to have ∆𝐻𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝐻𝐴𝐶 , then,
𝑡2
2 2
𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

1 𝑡2 2
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
∆𝑡 𝑡1

∴ If ∆𝐻𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝐻𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is actually the DC equivalent of an AC

 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅∆𝑡

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
⇔
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

RMS value of a given AC can be defined as that DC value which produces same
heat in a resistance which the AC produces in that resistance in same duration.

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the effective DC value of a given AC

 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅∆𝑡
𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
−𝑖 0
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
DC devices cannot measure alternating current or emf. Normal Ammeter, Voltmeter
will show only zero for AC

Hot Wire Ammeter & Hot Wire Voltmeter are used to measure AC. They measure
RMS value of 𝑖 & 𝜀 .
 Useful Results :
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0 The overhead bar denotes the
average value of each of the
1 functions and the average is taken
sin2 𝜔𝑡=
2 over a complete cycle
2
1
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
2
Find RMS current for 𝑖 = 𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

a b c d
3𝑖0 2𝑖0 0
3
𝑖0
2
𝑖 = 𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖ഥ2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2
1
sin2 𝜔𝑡 =
2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖02 + 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝑖02 sin 𝜔𝑡 [Since 𝑖0 is constant, 𝑖ഥ02 = 𝑖02 ]

1 3 × 𝑖02 3
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0 + 𝑖0 × + 2𝑖02 × 0 =
2 2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0
2 2 2

a b c d
3𝑖0 2𝑖0
3
𝑖0
2
Find RMS current for 𝑖 = 𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡.

a b c d

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 𝑖12 + 𝑖22
2
2
𝑖 = 𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 Short cut for full cycle
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖ഥ2
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 )2 2
1
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
2
2
1
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖12 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖22 cos2 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝑖1 𝑖2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 2

1 1
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖12 2
× + 𝑖2 × + 2𝑖1 𝑖2 × 0
2 2

𝑖12 + 𝑖22
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Find RMS value of potential difference 𝑉 shown in the figure is

𝑉0

𝑡
𝑇 /2 𝑇

a b c d
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
3 2 2
 𝑉

1 𝑇 2 𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 0
𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 /2 𝑇
𝑇
1 2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉02 𝑑𝑡 + න 0𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇
2

2
1 2 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉0 −0 +0
𝑇 2

2
𝑉02
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
a b c d
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 3 2 2
A diagram that represents AC and voltage of same frequency as rotating vectors (phasors)
along with proper phase angle between them.
𝑦
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑖0
𝜔
𝑖 𝜀0
𝜀
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Phase
= Phase of 𝑖 − Phase of 𝜀
difference (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (𝜔𝑡)

𝑦
𝑖0 Length of arrow → Peak value
𝜀0
𝑖
𝜀
𝜔𝑡
𝑥

Projection on y axis → Instantaneous value

I. An AC source connected only to:
A Resistor

An Inductor

A Capacitor

II. An AC source connected to more than one element.

RC LR LC LCR
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
 𝑅

Apply KVL in clockwise direction:

𝜀
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖 =
𝑅
𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖=
𝑅
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Peak voltage
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ⇒ 𝑖0 =
𝑅

Peak current 𝜀0
In AC circuit, hinderance to the current is defined by
𝑖0

Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 = 0 For purely resistive circuit

Current is in phase with potential

 𝑅

Current is in phase with potential

Phasor diagram
▪ Since the current and potential are in phase, their phasors will
overlap with each other. 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
▪ Since the magnitude of peak value of current is less than that of
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
the potential, current phasor will be smaller than voltage phasor.

𝜀0
𝑖0
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 𝑦

Wave diagram
▪ Since the current and potential both are represented by sine 𝜀0
function with same angular frequency (𝜔), their waveform will be 𝑖0
same as shown in the figure below.
𝜀 𝜔𝑡
▪ Since 𝑖0 = 0 , the magnitude of peak value of current is less than 𝑥
𝑅
that of the potential. Phasor diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
 𝐿

𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝐿
Potential drop across inductance, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Apply KVL ;

𝜀 − 𝑉𝐿 = 0
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝜀
𝐿 =𝜀 ⇒ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = න 𝑑𝑖 = න 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝜀0 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0
𝑖= =− cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 ω 𝐿𝜔
 𝐿

𝜀0 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 𝑉𝐿
𝑖= =− cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 ω 𝐿𝜔
𝜀0 𝜋 𝜀0 𝜋
𝑖=− sin − 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝐿𝜔 2 𝐿𝜔 2
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝑖0
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 Inductive reactance

SI Unit : Ohm (Ω)

 𝐿

𝑉𝐿
𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = −
2 2

Current lags potential by 90°

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑦 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
Phasor diagram
𝜀0

𝜔𝑡
𝑥

𝑖0
 𝑦

𝜋 𝜋 𝜀0
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = −
2 2

𝜔𝑡
Current lags potential by 90°
Phasor diagram 𝑥
Wave diagram
𝑖0
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
𝜋
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
 𝐿

𝑉𝐿
𝑋𝐿 v/s frequency (𝑓)

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿 × 2𝜋𝑓 ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2

𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝑓
𝑋𝐿

𝑓
Find 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 and 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 of given circuit.

a b c d
1 2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0 0. 5 0.5 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴
2 2

𝐿 =2𝐻

𝜀 = 10 sin(10𝑡 + 30°)
 𝐿 =2𝐻
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝜀0 = 10 𝑉 𝜔 = 10 𝑠 −1

𝜀0 𝜀0 10
𝑖0 = = = = 0.5 𝐴
𝑋𝐿 𝐿𝜔 2 × 10

𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 (For full cycle of AC 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0)

𝜀 = 10 sin(10𝑡 + 30°)
𝑖0 0.5
𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝐴
2 2

a b c d
1 2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0 0. 5 0.5 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴
2 2
 𝑞
Potential drop across capacitance, 𝑉𝐶 =
𝐶
Apply KVL ; 𝐶
− +
− +
𝜀 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0 𝑖 𝑞
−
−
+
+ 𝑞 𝑖
𝑞
=𝜀 ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶

𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝐶𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖= = 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐶𝜔𝜀0 cos 𝜔𝑡
 𝐶

𝑖 = 𝐶𝜔𝜀0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜀0 𝜋
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1 2
𝐶𝜔
𝑖0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
1 𝑋𝐶
𝐶𝜔

1
𝑋𝐶 = Capacitive reactance
𝐶𝜔
SI Unit : Ohm Ω
 𝐶

𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2

Current leads potential by 90°

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑦 2
Phasor diagram
𝑖0
𝜀0

𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 𝑦

𝜋 𝜋 𝑖0
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜀0
2 2

Current leads potential by 90° 𝜔𝑡

𝑥
Phasor diagram
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 𝜋
2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2
 𝐶

𝑋𝐶 v/s frequency (𝑓)

1
𝑋𝐶 = ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐶𝜔
1 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑋𝐶 = 𝜋
𝐶 × 2𝜋𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑋𝐶 2
1
𝑋𝐶 ∝
𝑓

𝑓
Element Current ( emf:𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ) 𝜙 𝑋 (Reactance)
𝜀0 0 𝑅
Resistor sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜔𝐿
Inductor sin 𝜔𝑡 − −
𝜔𝐿 2 2

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 1
Capacitor sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1ൗ 2 2 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
A capacitor of capacity 𝐶 has reactance 𝑋 . If capacitance and frequency become
double then reactance will be …

a b c d
4𝑋 𝑋/2 𝑋/4 2𝑋
 1 1
𝑋= =
𝐶𝜔 𝐶2𝜋𝑓

𝑓 ′ = 2𝑓

𝐶 ′ = 2𝐶

′
1 1 1
𝑋 = ′ ′
= =
𝐶 2𝜋𝑓 (2𝐶) × 2𝜋 × (2𝑓) 4(𝐶2𝜋𝑓)

𝑋
𝑋′ =
4
a b c d
4𝑋 𝑋/2 𝑋/4 2𝑋
 Current in a pure capacitive circuit of 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹 is 5 sin(50𝑡 + 30°). Find the
equation for emf.

a b c d
2 × 106 sin(50𝑡 ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 − 60° ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 + 90° ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 )
 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑖0 = 5 𝐴 𝜔 = 50 𝑠 −1
𝜀0 1
𝑖0 = 𝜀0 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑖0
𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐶
1
𝜀0 = 5
50 × 5 × 10−6
4 𝑖 = 5 sin(50𝑡 + 30°)
𝜀0 = 2 × 10 𝑉
Current leads potential by 90°.

𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − 90°) 𝜀 = 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 + 30 − 90°)

𝜀 = 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 − 60°)
 𝜋 𝜀 increases from zero to maximum,
0→
𝑉𝐿 2 current becomes zero.

𝜋 𝜀 decreases from maximum to zero,

→𝜋 current grows to maximum.
2

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 3𝜋 𝜀 increases from zero to negative

𝜋→ maximum, current becomes zero.
2
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀 3𝜋 𝜀 decreases from negative maximum
𝜀0 → 2𝜋
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 2 to zero, current grows to negative
𝑖0
maximum.
𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡 Current tries to follow path of voltage.
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − The phase difference between them
𝑖0 2
always remains to be 90°.
The lagging of current can be seen from the mechanical analogy as shown. Height represents the voltage and
velocity of block is current. When height is maximum, velocity is zero and vice-versa.

𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2

𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
 Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
 Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀 𝐶
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝑍
E0
The relation b/w peak current and peak voltages can be written as 𝑖0 =
𝑍

Pu re ly re s is t iv e c irc u it Pu re ly c a p a cit ive c irc u it Pu re ly indu c t iv e c irc u it

𝑍=𝑅 𝑍 = 1/𝜔𝐶 𝑍 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑍 is called impedance.

Impedance is defined as the opposition any circuit shows

when voltage is applied to it.

SI unit is Ohm (Ω)

 − |

E20 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅

𝜙
E20 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐶2
𝑉𝐶 E0
𝑖02 𝑍 2 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐶2 𝑅 𝐶

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ⇒ 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2

𝑋𝐶 = 1/𝜔𝐶 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
 − |
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2
𝑍
𝑋𝐶 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
𝜙
𝜙
𝑅
𝑋𝐶 1 𝑉𝐶 E0
tan 𝜙 = 𝑋𝐶 = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝜔𝐶
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅

Peak current (𝑖 0 ) is given by-

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
 − |

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅
𝜙 𝑅 𝐶
1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑉𝐶 E0
E0 E0
𝑖0 = = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2

Steady state current (𝑖 ) in the circuit

E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍

The current leads the emf by 𝜙 .

 − |

E20 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2 E0

𝑉𝐿
E20 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐿2 𝜙 𝑉𝑅
𝑖0
𝑖02 𝑍 2 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐿2

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 ⇒ 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝑅 𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 − |
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍
𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐿 E0
𝜙 𝑅 𝐿
𝑅 𝜙 𝑉𝑅

𝑋𝐿 𝑖0
tan 𝜙 = 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑅 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

Peak current (𝑖 0 ) is given by-

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
 − |
𝑉𝐿 E0
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

𝜙 𝑉𝑅
𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 = 𝑖0
𝑅
E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿

Steady state current ( 𝑖 ) in the circuit

E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑍

The current lags the emf by 𝜙 .

In the given circuit, find
𝑅 = 200 Ω 2
(a) inductive reactance 𝑋 𝐿 . 𝐿= 𝐻
𝜋
(b) impedance 𝑍 .
(c) Peak current 𝑖 0 .
𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
(d) i(t)
(a) inductive reactance 𝑋 𝐿 .
𝑅 = 200 Ω 2
𝐿= 𝐻
𝜋
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

2 𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
𝑋𝐿 = 100𝜋 × = 200 Ω
𝜋
(b) impedance 𝑍 .

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜙
𝑍= (200)2 + 200 2
𝑅
∴ 𝑍 = 200 2 Ω
(c) Peak current 𝑖 0 .
𝜀0 2
𝑖0 = 𝑅 = 200 Ω 𝐿= 𝐻
𝑍 𝜋
𝜀0 = 200 𝑉
200 1
𝑖0 = = 𝐴 𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
200 2 2

(d) i(t)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 sin 100𝜋𝑡 − 𝜙 ε0
𝑉𝐿
𝑍
𝑋𝐿 200 𝜋 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 = = =1 ⇒𝜙= 𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝜙
𝑅 200 4
𝑖0 𝑅
1 𝜋
∴𝑖 𝑡 = sin 100𝜋𝑡 −
2 4
A series R-C circuit is connected to an alternating voltage source. Consider two situations
(a) When capacitor is air filled.
(b) When capacitor is mica filled.
Current through resistor is 𝐼 and voltage across capacitor is 𝑉 then-

a b c d
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 < 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎 > 𝐼𝑏
 𝐶 𝐶′ 1
𝑋𝐶 =
1 𝜔𝐶
𝑋𝐶 ∝
𝐶 𝐶′ > 𝐶

When capacitor is filled with mica, its capacitance increases.

As 𝐶 increases, 𝑋 𝐶 decreases

As 𝑋 𝐶 decreases, voltage across capacitor decreases (𝑋 𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 ).

𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏

a b c d
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 < 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎 > 𝐼𝑏
An A.C. voltage is applied to a resistance 𝑅 and an inductor 𝐿 in series. If 𝑅 and the
inductive reactance are both equal to 3 Ω, the phase difference between the applied
voltage and the current in the circuit is

𝑅 =3Ω 𝑋𝐿 = 3 Ω

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

a b c d
Zero 𝜋/6 𝜋/4 𝜋/2
 𝑅 =3Ω 𝑋 =3Ω
𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 tan 𝜙 =
tan 𝜙 = =1 𝑅
𝑅

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜙 = 45° or 𝜋/4

𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜙
𝑅

a b c d
Zero 𝜋/6 𝜋/4 𝜋/2
In an A.C. circuit, an alternating voltage, 𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡) volt is connected to
capacitor of capacity 1 𝜇𝐹 . The r.m.s. value of current in the circuit is

1 𝜇𝐹

𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡)

a b c d
10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴 200 𝑚𝐴 20 𝑚𝐴
 1 𝜇𝐹
Alternating voltage, ε = 200 2 sin(100𝑡 )
comparing with ε = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜔 = 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 𝜀0 = 200 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡)

1 1 4Ω
𝑋𝐶 = = Ω = 10 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐶 100 × 10−6

𝜀0 200 2 𝐼0 2 2×10−2
𝐼0 = = 4
𝐴 = 2 2 × 10 −2
𝐴 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 2 × 10−2 𝐴 = 20 𝑚𝐴
𝑋𝐶 10 2 2

a b c c
10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴 200 𝑚𝐴 20 𝑚𝐴
 The work done by source in time interval 𝑑𝑡 is,

𝑑𝑊 = E 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑑𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑑𝑡
= E0 𝑖0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Total work done in a cycle is, 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑇 𝑇
𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 cos 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇1
= E0 𝑖0 cos 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2

E0𝑖0 cos 𝜙 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇1
=
2
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 − ‫׬‬0 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 2
sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1
𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙
2
 Total work done in a cycle is,
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
1
𝑊= E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙
2

Average Power delivered,

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑇

1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 0 𝑖 0 cos 𝜙
2

E0 𝑖0
= cos 𝜙
2 2

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

 𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

Power Factor

For purely resistive circuit,

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖, 𝜀 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 0°
𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2

Power drawn is maximum in a purely resistive circuit

 𝜙 = 𝜋 /2 or 𝜙 = −𝜋 /2
𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ±
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Power Factor
For purely reactive circuit - No power is absorbed for a full cycle in purely
inductive or purely capacitive circuits

𝜙 = 𝜋/2 𝜙 = −𝜋/2

𝑖, 𝜀 𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡 𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑖0 2 𝑖0 2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2
2
 |
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑍 𝑅 𝐶
𝑋𝐶
𝑅 𝜙
cos 𝜙 =
𝑅 2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
𝑅

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Average Power in RC circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
 |
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑍 𝑅 𝐿
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
cos 𝜙 = 𝜙
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
𝑅
E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Average Power in LR circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍