What you already know

Welcome to 1. Capacitor

BYJU’S
2. Electric current
3. Magnetism and matter
4. Electromagnetic induction

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. The current war

S1: Introduction to Alternating
Current
2. Introduction to AC: Peak
current, time period for
full cycle
3. Sinusoidal EMF and its
generation
 THE CURRENT WAR
Edison invented a compact electric bulb which
could glow for a sustained period of time
Edison was a proponent of DC which was the
prevalent form of electric current at that
time.
At the same time when Edison discovered
the electric bulb, a young student by the
name of Nicola Tesla came up with different
vision.
He believed that AC is the more efficient
form of current.
 THE CURRENT WAR

Tesla pitched his idea about AC motor to George Westinghouse, the richest person of
USA at that time, and told him that transmission of electricity would be more efficient
using AC.
George Westinghouse got impressed with Tesla’s idea and Tesla started building AC power
plants with the help of “Westinghouse Electric co.”.
 THE CURRENT WAR
EDISON electrocuted animals and human to show that AC was too dangerous to use.

Since Tesla continuously tried to transmit power at a large distance, either the current or
the voltage should be high, since 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 . If current is high, then there will be huge joule
heating (𝐼2𝑅). So, the only option to distribute large power was producing high voltage.
If voltage becomes high, then that would not be safe and this weakness was exploited by
Edison and he started anti AC campaign.
At the same time, transformers were invented and this helped Tesla a lot. Tesla started
using step up and step down transformer when it required to generate or reduce high
voltage.
Tesla-Westinghouse Niagara falls
power plant(1895)

It was Tesla who pitched in, and his AC made it possible and the Niagara project goes
to Westinghouse Electric co. Edison had to just watch it and the pivotal battle of the
current is won by Tesla’s AC.
If we take a video of tube light in slo-mo. We can see the light is not constant. It is
constantly fluctuating. This is because the current we get in our houses is AC.
An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct
current which flows only in one direction.
Direct Current(𝐷𝐶 )
𝑖
𝐷𝐶 Source
+
−

𝑡
𝑇/2 𝑇

Alternating Current (𝐴𝐶 )

𝑖
𝐴𝐶 Source

𝑡
𝑇/2 𝑇
 An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct
current which flows only in one direction.
𝑖

𝑇 𝑡 Square Wave 𝐴𝐶
𝑇 3𝑇 2𝑇
2 2

𝑇 𝑇 𝑡 Triangular Wave 𝐴𝐶
2
𝑖

𝑇 𝑇 𝑡 Sinusoidal 𝐴𝐶
2
Variation of current with time for four types of generators are shown in the figures.
Which amongst them can be called AC.
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴) 𝐵)
𝑡 𝑡

𝑖 𝑖
𝐶)
𝑡 𝐷) 𝑡

a b c d
only 𝐴 𝐴&𝐷 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 𝐴&𝐵
 𝑖 𝑖

𝐴) 𝐵) 𝑡
𝑡

𝑖 𝑖

𝐶) 𝐷) 𝑡
𝑡

In all the given cases, current is changing direction with time. Hence all these cases are
of alternating currents.

a b c d
only 𝐴 𝐴&𝐷 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 𝐴&𝐵
 𝑖
∆𝑞 𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡)
Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) =
∆𝑡 𝑡2
∆𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
Average current representations: 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = < 𝑖 > = (𝑖) 𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2

Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) for time varying current is,

𝑡2
∆𝑞 ‫𝑡𝑑𝑖 𝑡׬‬
1
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
 1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Average value of an AC is equal to that of DC for which the Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
amount of charge that flows in a given amount of time is the
same as that of AC. 𝑖
𝑡2 𝑖 𝐷𝐶
∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑞 = 𝑖 𝐷 𝐶 ∆ 𝑡
𝑡2
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
𝑡1

1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1

If ∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶

If 𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 , find average current in 2 𝑠 .

a b c d
12 𝐴 3𝐴 4𝐴 0𝐴
 1 𝑡2 𝑡1 = 0 𝑠
𝑖= 3𝑡 2 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2 = 2 𝑠

1 2 2
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 0

2
1 3𝑡 3 8
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = = 𝐴
2 3 0 2

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 4 𝐴

a b c d
12 𝐴 3𝐴 4𝐴 0𝐴
𝑖
+𝑞 +𝑞

−𝑞
𝑡
−𝑞 𝑇
∴ න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑞 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑖 0

+𝑞 1 𝑇
𝑡 𝑖 av = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 0
−𝑞 Δ𝑡 0

𝑖
𝑖𝑎𝑣 for full cycle of 𝐴𝐶 is zero
+𝑞
−𝑞
𝑡
 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

In this case, current is generated through the hydroelectric power plant, where water waves
at high speed hit the turbine that results in generation of AC current.
 𝑖
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For full cycle
1 𝑇 1 𝑡2
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
(𝑇 − 0) 0 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
−𝑖 0

1 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇 𝑖0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖0 − = cos 0 − cos 𝜔𝑇
𝑇 𝜔 0 𝑇𝜔

𝑖0 2𝜋
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = cos 0 − cos 2𝜋 = 0 𝜔=
𝑇𝜔 𝑇

𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =0

 What you already know

Welcome to 1. The current war

BYJU’S
2. Introduction to AC: Peak
current, time period for
full cycle
3. Sinusoidal EMF and its

Classes
generation

What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Average value of AC for

half cycle
S2: RMS value of current 2. RMS value of sinusoidal AC
3. Significance of RMS value
 𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡)
Mean or average value of current
𝑡2
∆𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
∆𝑞 𝑡1
Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) =
∆𝑡 𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2

Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) for time varying current is

𝑡2
∆𝑞 ‫𝑡𝑑𝑖 𝑡׬‬
1
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

1 𝑡2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
Mean or average value of current
Average value of an AC is equal to that DC for which
the amount of charge that flows in a given amount 𝑖
of time is the same as that of AC . 𝑖 𝐷𝐶
𝑡2
∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑞 = 𝑖 𝐷 𝐶 ∆ 𝑡
𝑡1
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
𝑡2
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 ∆𝑡 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

𝑡2 1 𝑡2
1 𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐷𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡 𝑡 1
∆𝑡 𝑡1

If ∆𝑞𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝑞𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶

Average value of sinusoidal AC 𝑖
𝑖0
For full cycle
1 𝑇 1 𝑡2
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
(𝑇 − 0) 0 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
−𝑖 0

𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =0

 𝑖
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For half cycle
𝑇/2
1 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜋/2 3𝜋/2
𝑇 −𝑖 0
−0 0
2

2 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇/2 2𝑖0 𝜔𝑇

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖0 − = cos 0 − cos
𝑇 𝜔 0 𝑇𝜔 2

2𝑖0 4𝑖0 2𝑖0

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = cos 0 − cos 𝜋 = =
𝑇𝜔 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇×
𝑇

2𝑖0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋
 𝑖
𝑖0

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
For full cycle 𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =0 −𝑖 0

2𝑖0
For half cycle 𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = These are true if and only if:
𝜋
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜀0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
For half cycle 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋
 ( )
The procedure of finding the RMS value of any function is just doing the mathematical operation
in the reverse order of the name i.e., find square of the function ⇒ find its mean ⇒ find square
root.

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 > Root mean square (rms)

1 𝑡2 < 𝑥 2 > = 𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1

𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝜀2 >

1 𝑡2 2
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝜀 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1
 𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 >

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 > −𝑖 0

2
1 𝑇2 2 𝑖02 𝑇 2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇 0

𝑖02 𝑇 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 1 − cos 2𝜃

2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑑𝑡 sin2 𝜃 =
𝑇 0 2 2

𝑇
2
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑡−
2𝑇 2𝜔 0
 𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 >
𝑇
2
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔𝑡 2𝜋 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑡− 𝑇=
2𝑇 2𝜔 𝜔 −𝑖 0
0

2𝜋
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔 𝑖02
2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇− 𝜔 − 0 − sin 0 = T
2𝑇 2𝜔 2𝑇

2
𝑖02
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0 2𝑖0
2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
2 𝜋
𝑖0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀0 2𝜀0
2 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
2 𝜋
 The AC generated in power plant can be
transmitted over large distances using
transmission cables at high voltage.

This AC voltage is made usable as per the

voltage requirement of the users using step
up or step down transformers.
 Household current → sinusoidal AC (𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 220 𝑉

𝜀𝑎𝑣 = 0 𝑉

𝜀0 = 2𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜀0 = 2 × 220 = 311.12 𝑉 ≈ 311 𝑉

If problem states only 𝜀 (not 𝜀0 , 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝜀𝑎𝑣 )

then, consider it as 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
Heat produced in AC circuit through resistor 𝑅 in time 𝑡1 to 𝑡2
𝑡2
2 1 𝑡2 2
𝐻𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

Heat produced in DC circuit through resistor 𝑅 in time 𝑡1 to 𝑡2

𝑖𝐷𝐶
2
𝐻𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡

𝑖𝐷𝐶
 2
𝑡2 1 𝑡2 2
𝐻𝐴𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
2
𝐻𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
If we require to have ∆𝐻𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝐻𝐴𝐶 , then,
𝑡2
2 2
𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝑅∆𝑡 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

1 𝑡2 2
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
∆𝑡 𝑡1

∴ If ∆𝐻𝐷𝐶 = ∆𝐻𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖 𝐷𝐶 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is actually the DC equivalent of an AC

 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅∆𝑡

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
⇔
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

RMS value of a given AC can be defined as that DC value which produces same
heat in a resistance which the AC produces in that resistance in same duration.

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the effective DC value of a given AC

 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅∆𝑡
𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
−𝑖 0
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
DC devices cannot measure alternating current or emf. Normal Ammeter, Voltmeter
will show only zero for AC

Hot Wire Ammeter & Hot Wire Voltmeter are used to measure AC. They measure
RMS value of 𝑖 & 𝜀 .
 Useful Results :
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0 The overhead bar denotes the
average value of each of the
1 functions and the average is taken
sin2 𝜔𝑡=
2 over a complete cycle
2
1
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
2
Find RMS current for 𝑖 = 𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

a b c d
3𝑖0 2𝑖0 0
3
𝑖0
2
𝑖 = 𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖ഥ2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑖 0 + 𝑖 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 )2
1
sin2 𝜔𝑡 =
2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖02 + 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝑖02 sin 𝜔𝑡 [Since 𝑖0 is constant, 𝑖ഥ02 = 𝑖02 ]

1 3 × 𝑖02 3
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0 + 𝑖0 × + 2𝑖02 × 0 =
2 2 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0
2 2 2

a b c d
3𝑖0 2𝑖0
3
𝑖0
2
 What you already know

Welcome to 1. Introduction to AC: Peak

current, time period

BYJU’S 2.

3.
Sinusoidal EMF and its
generation
RMS value of sinusoidal AC

Classes
4. Significance of RMS value

What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Examples on RMS value

2. Phasor diagram
S3: Phasor diagram 3. Introduction to AC
circuits
4. Pure resistive AC circuit
 𝑖
Average value of sinusoidal AC 𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

For half cycle

𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
−𝑖 0
𝑇/2
1
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
−0 0
2

2𝑖0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋
Root mean square (RMS) value

Root mean square (rms)

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 > < 𝑥 2 > = 𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠
1 𝑡2 2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1

𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝜀2 >

1 𝑡2 2
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝜀 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡1
 𝑖 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Root mean square (RMS) value
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 >
𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
−𝑖 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 >

Useful Results :
𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖0 2𝑖0 1
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = sin2 𝜔𝑡=
2 𝜋 2
1
𝜀0 2𝜀0 2
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2
2 𝜋
 Significance of RMS value 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅∆𝑡

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
⇔
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

RMS value of a given AC can be defined as that DC value which produces same heat in a
resistance which the AC produces in that resistance in same duration.

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the effective DC value of a given AC

Find RMS current for 𝑖 = 𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡.

a b c d

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 𝑖12 + 𝑖22
2
2
𝑖 = 𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 Short cut for full cycle
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖ഥ2
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑖 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 )2 2
1
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
2
2
1
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖12 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖22 cos2 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝑖1 𝑖2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 2

1 1
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖12 2
× + 𝑖2 × + 2𝑖1 𝑖2 × 0
2 2

𝑖12 + 𝑖22
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Find RMS value of potential difference 𝑉 shown in the figure is

𝑉0

𝑡
𝑇 /2 𝑇

a b c d
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
3 2 2
 𝑉

1 𝑇 2 𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡 0
𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 /2 𝑇
𝑇
1 2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉02 𝑑𝑡 + න 0𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇
2

2
1 2 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉0 −0 +0
𝑇 2

2
𝑉02
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
a b c d
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 3 2 2
A diagram that represents AC and voltage of same frequency as rotating vectors (phasors)
along with proper phase angle between them.
𝑦
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑖0
𝜔
𝑖 𝜀0
𝜀
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Phase
= Phase of 𝑖 − Phase of 𝜀
difference (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (𝜔𝑡)

𝑦
𝑖0 Length of arrow → Peak value
𝜀0
𝑖
𝜀
𝜔𝑡
𝑥

Projection on y axis → Instantaneous value

I. An AC source connected only to:
A Resistor

An Inductor

A Capacitor

II. An AC source connected to more than one element.

RC LR LC LCR
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
 𝑅

Apply KVL in clockwise direction:

𝜀
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖 =
𝑅
𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖=
𝑅
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Peak voltage
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ⇒ 𝑖0 =
𝑅

Peak current 𝜀0
In AC circuit, hinderance to the current is defined by
𝑖0

Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 = 0 For purely resistive circuit

Current is in phase with potential

 𝑅

Current is in phase with potential

Phasor diagram
▪ Since the current and potential are in phase, their phasors will
overlap with each other. 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
▪ Since the magnitude of peak value of current is less than that of
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
the potential, current phasor will be smaller than voltage phasor.

𝜀0
𝑖0
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 𝑦

Wave diagram
▪ Since the current and potential both are represented by sine 𝜀0
function with same angular frequency (𝜔), their waveform will be 𝑖0
same as shown in the figure below.
𝜀 𝜔𝑡
▪ Since 𝑖0 = 0 , the magnitude of peak value of current is less than 𝑥
𝑅
that of the potential. Phasor diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Sinusoidal AC parameters
Introduction to phasor

BYJU’S 3.
diagrams
Pure resistive circuits

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Pure capacitive AC circuits

2. Pure inductive AC circuits
S4: Phasor Diagram - 2 3. Examples on AC circuits
 Phasor diagram
A diagram that represents AC and voltage of same frequency as rotating vectors
(phasors) along with proper phase angle between them.

𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Phase = Phase of 𝑖 − Phase of 𝜀

difference (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (𝜔𝑡)
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Length of arrow → Peak value

Projection on y axis → Instantaneous value

 AC circuits
I. An AC source connected only to:

A Resistor An Inductor A Capacitor

II. An AC source connected to more than one element.

RC LR LC LCR
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
 𝑅

Pure resistive AC circuit

𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖=
𝑅
𝜀0 Peak voltage
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖0 =
𝑅 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡

Peak current

Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 = 0

Current is in phase with potential

Phasor diagram 𝑦 Current is in phase with potential

𝜀0
𝑖0
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
 𝐿

𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝐿
Potential drop across inductance, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Apply KVL ;

𝜀 − 𝑉𝐿 = 0
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝜀
𝐿 =𝜀 ⇒ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = න 𝑑𝑖 = න 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝜀0 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0
𝑖= =− cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 ω 𝐿𝜔
 𝐿

𝜀0 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 𝑉𝐿
𝑖= =− cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 ω 𝐿𝜔
𝜀0 𝜋 𝜀0 𝜋
𝑖=− sin − 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝐿𝜔 2 𝐿𝜔 2
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝑖0
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 Inductive reactance

SI Unit : Ohm (Ω)

 𝐿

𝑉𝐿
𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = −
2 2

Current lags potential by 90°

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑦 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
Phasor diagram
𝜀0

𝜔𝑡
𝑥

𝑖0
 𝑦

𝜋 𝜋 𝜀0
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = −
2 2

𝜔𝑡
Current lags potential by 90°
Phasor diagram 𝑥
Wave diagram
𝑖0
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
𝜋
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
 𝐿

𝑉𝐿
𝑋𝐿 v/s frequency (𝑓)

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔

𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿 × 2𝜋𝑓 ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2

𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝑓
𝑋𝐿

𝑓
Find 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 and 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 of given circuit.

a b c d
1 2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0 0. 5 0.5 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴
2 2

𝐿 =2𝐻

𝜀 = 10 sin(10𝑡 + 30°)
 𝐿 =2𝐻
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝜀0 = 10 𝑉 𝜔 = 10 𝑠 −1

𝜀0 𝜀0 10
𝑖0 = = = = 0.5 𝐴
𝑋𝐿 𝐿𝜔 2 × 10

𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 (For full cycle of AC 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0)

𝜀 = 10 sin(10𝑡 + 30°)
𝑖0 0.5
𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝐴
2 2

a b c d
1 2
𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0 𝑖 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0 0. 5 0.5 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴
2 2
 𝑞
Potential drop across capacitance, 𝑉𝐶 =
𝐶
Apply KVL ; 𝐶
− +
− +
𝜀 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0 𝑖 𝑞
−
−
+
+ 𝑞 𝑖
𝑞
=𝜀 ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶

𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝐶𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖= = 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐶𝜔𝜀0 cos 𝜔𝑡
 𝐶

𝑖 = 𝐶𝜔𝜀0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜀0 𝜋
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1 2
𝐶𝜔
𝑖0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
1 𝑋𝐶
𝐶𝜔

1
𝑋𝐶 = Capacitive reactance
𝐶𝜔
SI Unit : Ohm Ω
 𝐶

𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2

Current leads potential by 90°

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑦 2
Phasor diagram
𝑖0
𝜀0

𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 𝑦

𝜋 𝜋 𝑖0
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜀0
2 2

Current leads potential by 90° 𝜔𝑡

𝑥
Phasor diagram
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 𝜋
2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2
 𝐶

𝑋𝐶 v/s frequency (𝑓)

1
𝑋𝐶 = ∴ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐶𝜔
1 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑋𝐶 = 𝜋
𝐶 × 2𝜋𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑋𝐶 2
1
𝑋𝐶 ∝
𝑓

𝑓
Element Current ( emf:𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ) 𝜙 𝑋 (Reactance)
𝜀0 0 𝑅
Resistor sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜔𝐿
Inductor sin 𝜔𝑡 − −
𝜔𝐿 2 2

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 1
Capacitor sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1ൗ 2 2 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
A capacitor of capacity 𝐶 has reactance 𝑋 . If capacitance and frequency become
double then reactance will be …

a b c d
4𝑋 𝑋/2 𝑋/4 2𝑋
 1 1
𝑋= =
𝐶𝜔 𝐶2𝜋𝑓

𝑓 ′ = 2𝑓

𝐶 ′ = 2𝐶

′
1 1 1
𝑋 = ′ ′
= =
𝐶 2𝜋𝑓 (2𝐶) × 2𝜋 × (2𝑓) 4(𝐶2𝜋𝑓)

𝑋
𝑋′ =
4
a b c d
4𝑋 𝑋/2 𝑋/4 2𝑋
 Current in a pure capacitive circuit of 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹 is 5 sin(50𝑡 + 30°). Find the
equation for emf.

a b c d
2 × 106 sin(50𝑡 ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 − 60° ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 + 90° ) 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 )
 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑖0 = 5 𝐴 𝜔 = 50 𝑠 −1
𝜀0 1
𝑖0 = 𝜀0 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑖0
𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐶
1
𝜀0 = 5
50 × 5 × 10−6
4 𝑖 = 5 sin(50𝑡 + 30°)
𝜀0 = 2 × 10 𝑉
Current leads potential by 90°.

𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − 90°) 𝜀 = 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 + 30 − 90°)

𝜀 = 2 × 104 sin(50𝑡 − 60°)
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Sinusoidal AC parameters
Phasor diagrams

BYJU’S 3.
4.
5.
Pure resistive AC circuits
Pure capacitive AC circuits
Pure inductive AC circuits

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Impedance

2. RC combination
S5: AC Circuits (Combination) 3. LR combination
Pure inductive AC circuit 𝐿
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑉𝐿
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 Inductive reactance SI Unit : Ohm (Ω)

𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = −
2 2

Current lags potential by 90°

Pure inductive AC circuit
𝑦
Phasor diagram

𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝑥
Wave diagram
𝑖0
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
Pure capacitive AC circuit
𝐶
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖0 = =
1 𝑋𝐶
𝐶𝜔
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
1 Capacitive reactance SI Unit : Ohm Ω
𝑋𝐶 =
𝐶𝜔
𝜋 𝜋
Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2

Current leads potential by 90°

Pure capacitive AC circuit
𝑦
Phasor diagram
𝑖0
𝜀0

𝜔𝑡
𝑥
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2
Simple AC circuits

Element Current (emf:𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ) 𝜙 𝑋 (Reactance)

𝜀0 0 𝑅
Resistor sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜔𝐿
Inductor sin 𝜔𝑡 − −
𝜔𝐿 2 2

𝜀0 𝜋 𝜋 1
Capacitor sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1ൗ 2 2 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
 𝜋 𝜀 increases from zero to maximum,
0→
𝑉𝐿 2 current becomes zero.

𝜋 𝜀 decreases from maximum to zero,

→𝜋 current grows to maximum.
2

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 3𝜋 𝜀 increases from zero to negative

𝜋→ maximum, current becomes zero.
2
Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀 3𝜋 𝜀 decreases from negative maximum
𝜀0 → 2𝜋
𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 2 to zero, current grows to negative
𝑖0
maximum.
𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡 Current tries to follow path of voltage.
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − The phase difference between them
𝑖0 2
always remains to be 90°.
The lagging of current can be seen from the mechanical analogy as shown. Height represents the voltage and
velocity of block is current. When height is maximum, velocity is zero and vice-versa.

𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2

𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
 Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
 Wave diagram
𝑖, 𝜀 𝐶
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2

𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝑍
E0
The relation b/w peak current and peak voltages can be written as 𝑖0 =
𝑍

Pu re ly re s is t iv e c irc u it Pu re ly c a p a cit ive c irc u it Pu re ly indu c t iv e c irc u it

𝑍=𝑅 𝑍 = 1/𝜔𝐶 𝑍 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑍 is called impedance.

Impedance is defined as the opposition any circuit shows

when voltage is applied to it.

SI unit is Ohm (Ω)

 − |

E20 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅

𝜙
E20 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐶2
𝑉𝐶 E0
𝑖02 𝑍 2 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐶2 𝑅 𝐶

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ⇒ 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2

𝑋𝐶 = 1/𝜔𝐶 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
 − |
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2
𝑍
𝑋𝐶 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
𝜙
𝜙
𝑅
𝑋𝐶 1 𝑉𝐶 E0
tan 𝜙 = 𝑋𝐶 = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝜔𝐶
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅

Peak current (𝑖 0 ) is given by-

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
 − |

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅
𝜙 𝑅 𝐶
1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑉𝐶 E0
E0 E0
𝑖0 = = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2

Steady state current (𝑖 ) in the circuit

E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍

The current leads the emf by 𝜙 .

 − |

E20 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2 E0

𝑉𝐿
E20 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐿2 𝜙 𝑉𝑅
𝑖0
𝑖02 𝑍 2 = 𝑖02 𝑅2 + 𝑖02 𝑋𝐿2

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 ⇒ 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝑅 𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 − |
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍
𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐿 E0
𝜙 𝑅 𝐿
𝑅 𝜙 𝑉𝑅

𝑋𝐿 𝑖0
tan 𝜙 = 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑅 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

Peak current (𝑖 0 ) is given by-

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
 − |
𝑉𝐿 E0
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

𝜙 𝑉𝑅
𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 = 𝑖0
𝑅
E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿

Steady state current ( 𝑖 ) in the circuit

E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑍

The current lags the emf by 𝜙 .

In the given circuit, find
𝑅 = 200 Ω 2
(a) inductive reactance 𝑋 𝐿 . 𝐿= 𝐻
𝜋
(b) impedance 𝑍 .
(c) Peak current 𝑖 0 .
𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
(d) i(t)
(a) inductive reactance 𝑋 𝐿 .
𝑅 = 200 Ω 2
𝐿= 𝐻
𝜋
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

2 𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
𝑋𝐿 = 100𝜋 × = 200 Ω
𝜋
(b) impedance 𝑍 .

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜙
𝑍= (200)2 + 200 2
𝑅
∴ 𝑍 = 200 2 Ω
(c) Peak current 𝑖 0 .
𝜀0 2
𝑖0 = 𝑅 = 200 Ω 𝐿= 𝐻
𝑍 𝜋
𝜀0 = 200 𝑉
200 1
𝑖0 = = 𝐴 𝜀 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡)
200 2 2

(d) i(t)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 sin 100𝜋𝑡 − 𝜙 ε0
𝑉𝐿
𝑍
𝑋𝐿 200 𝜋 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 = = =1 ⇒𝜙= 𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝜙
𝑅 200 4
𝑖0 𝑅
1 𝜋
∴𝑖 𝑡 = sin 100𝜋𝑡 −
2 4
 What you already know

Welcome to 1. Pure AC circuits

BYJU’S 2.
3.
RC and LR AC circuits
Impedance

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. To t a l w o r k d o n e i n a
cycle
S6: Power in AC circuits 2. Average power delivered
in pure resistive and
pure reactive circuits
3. Power in RC and RL
circuits
Impedance
E0
The relation b/w peak current and peak voltages can be written as 𝑖0 =
𝑍

𝑍=𝑅 𝑍 = 1/𝜔𝐶 𝑍 = 𝜔𝐿

𝑍 is called impedance.

Impedance is defined as the opposition any circuit presents when voltage is applied to it.

SI unit is Ohm (Ω)

 RC combination in AC circuits
𝑅 𝐶

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2

1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2 𝑖0 𝑉𝑅 𝑅
𝜙 𝜙
Steady state current ( 𝑖 ) in the circuit, 𝑋𝐶
𝑍
E0 𝑉𝐶 E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍

The current leads the emf by 𝜙 .

 LR combination in AC circuits
𝑅 𝐿
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
𝑉𝐿 E0
𝑍
𝑋𝐿
Steady state current ( 𝑖 ) in the circuit 𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝜙
E0 𝑖0 𝑅
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑍

The current lags the emf by 𝜙 .

A series R-C circuit is connected to an alternating voltage source. Consider two situations
(a) When capacitor is air filled.
(b) When capacitor is mica filled.
Current through resistor is 𝐼 and voltage across capacitor is 𝑉 then-

a b c d
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 < 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎 > 𝐼𝑏
 𝐶 𝐶′ 1
𝑋𝐶 =
1 𝜔𝐶
𝑋𝐶 ∝
𝐶 𝐶′ > 𝐶

When capacitor is filled with mica, its capacitance increases.

As 𝐶 increases, 𝑋 𝐶 decreases

As 𝑋 𝐶 decreases, voltage across capacitor decreases (𝑋 𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 ).

𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏

a b c d
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 < 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎 > 𝐼𝑏
An A.C. voltage is applied to a resistance 𝑅 and an inductor 𝐿 in series. If 𝑅 and the
inductive reactance are both equal to 3 Ω, the phase difference between the applied
voltage and the current in the circuit is

𝑅 =3Ω 𝑋𝐿 = 3 Ω

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

a b c d
Zero 𝜋/6 𝜋/4 𝜋/2
 𝑅 =3Ω 𝑋 =3Ω
𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 tan 𝜙 =
tan 𝜙 = =1 𝑅
𝑅

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜙 = 45° or 𝜋/4

𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜙
𝑅

a b c d
Zero 𝜋/6 𝜋/4 𝜋/2
In an A.C. circuit, an alternating voltage, 𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡) volt is connected to
capacitor of capacity 1 𝜇𝐹 . The r.m.s. value of current in the circuit is

1 𝜇𝐹

𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡)

a b c d
10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴 200 𝑚𝐴 20 𝑚𝐴
 1 𝜇𝐹
Alternating voltage, ε = 200 2 sin(100𝑡 )
comparing with ε = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜔 = 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 𝜀0 = 200 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝜀 = 200 2 sin(100𝑡)

1 1 4Ω
𝑋𝐶 = = Ω = 10 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐶 100 × 10−6

𝜀0 200 2 𝐼0 2 2×10−2
𝐼0 = = 4
𝐴 = 2 2 × 10 −2
𝐴 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 2 × 10−2 𝐴 = 20 𝑚𝐴
𝑋𝐶 10 2 2

a b c c
10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴 200 𝑚𝐴 20 𝑚𝐴
 The work done by source in time interval 𝑑𝑡 is,

𝑑𝑊 = E 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑑𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑑𝑡
= E0 𝑖0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Total work done in a cycle is, 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑇 𝑇
𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 cos 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇1
= E0 𝑖0 cos 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2

E0𝑖0 cos 𝜙 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇1
=
2
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 − ‫׬‬0 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + E0 𝑖0 sin 𝜙 ‫׬‬0 2
sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1
𝑊 = E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙
2
 Total work done in a cycle is,
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
1
𝑊= E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙
2

Average Power delivered,

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑇

1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 0 𝑖 0 cos 𝜙
2

E0 𝑖0
= cos 𝜙
2 2

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

 𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

Power Factor

For purely resistive circuit,

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖, 𝜀 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 0°
𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2

Power drawn is maximum in a purely resistive circuit

 𝜙 = 𝜋 /2 or 𝜙 = −𝜋 /2
𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ±
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Power Factor
For purely reactive circuit - No power is absorbed for a full cycle in purely
inductive or purely capacitive circuits

𝜙 = 𝜋/2 𝜙 = −𝜋/2

𝑖, 𝜀 𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖0

𝜋 𝑡 𝜋 3𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑖0 2 𝑖0 2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2
2
 |
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑍 𝑅 𝐶
𝑋𝐶
𝑅 𝜙
cos 𝜙 =
𝑅 2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
𝑅

E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Average Power in RC circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
 |
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑍 𝑅 𝐿
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
cos 𝜙 = 𝜙
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
𝑅
E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Average Power in LR circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Pure AC circuits
RC and LR AC circuits

BYJU’S 3.
4.
Impedance
Power in AC circuits

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Apparent, reactive, and

active power in AC circuits
S7: Series L-C-R circuits 2. Series LCR circuits
3. Impedance diagram
Power in AC circuits
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

Total work done in a cycle is

1
𝑊= E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙 E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Average Power delivered -

𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑇

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 𝑅

Power Factor

For purely resistive circuit -

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 0° In this circuit, the power always remains 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
positive because when voltage becomes
negative, the current will also become
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 negative. That’s why this power is known
as ‘Active power’.

Power drawn is maximum in a

purely resistive circuit
 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙
Power Factor
For purely reactive circuit -
𝜙 = 𝜋 /2 or 𝜙 = −𝜋 /2
𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ±
2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0

No power is absorbed for a full cycle in

purely inductive or purely capacitive 𝜙 = 𝜋/2 𝜙 = −𝜋/2
circuits
❖ In this circuit, the power oscillates to and fro between positive and negative value having
zero in between because for these circuit the phase difference between voltage and
𝜋
current is .
2
Power in AC circuits – (RC combination) 𝑍 𝑅 𝐶
𝑋𝐶
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝜙
𝑅
𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑅 2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2

Average Power in RC circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
Power in AC circuits – (RL combination) 𝑍 𝑅 𝐿
𝑋𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 𝜙
𝑅
𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑍 E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

Average Power in RL circuits is,

𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
 | (𝑆)
Total power flowing in a circuit is known as apparent power.

It is defined as the product of RMS values of current and voltage.

𝑆 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠
 | (𝑄)
𝐼 cos 𝜙
The portion of power which flows back and forth in the circuit is E
𝜙
called as reactive power.
𝜋
Reactive power is product of voltage and current off phase by with Current in
2
phase
the voltage
𝐼
𝐼 sin 𝜙
𝑄 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜙 Current out
of phase

Reactive components like capacitors and inductors dissipate zero power, but they drop
voltage and draw current, they give a deception of drawing power, this power is called
reactive power.

𝐼 sin 𝜙 is called WATTLESS component

 | (𝑃)
𝐼 cos 𝜙
The portion of power absorbed by the load is known as active power. E
𝜙
Active power is product of voltage and current in phase with the voltage.
Current in
phase
𝑃 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝐼
𝐼 sin 𝜙
Current out
The ratio of Active power to Apparent power is the power factor. of phase

𝑃
= cos 𝜙
𝑆
 | 𝑃, 𝑄 & 𝑆
𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝑃 = E𝐼 cos 𝜙
E E
𝜙 𝜙

𝐼 𝑆
𝐼 sin 𝜙 𝑄 = E𝐼 sin 𝜙

𝑆= 𝑃2 + 𝑄2

Where,
𝑆 = Apparent power

𝑄 = Reactive power

𝑃 = Active power
A small signal voltage 𝑉 (𝑡 ) = 𝑉0 sin𝜔𝑡 is applied across an ideal capacitor 𝐶 . Which of
the following statements is correct for this situation?

a b c d
Current 𝐼(𝑡) is Current 𝐼(𝑡) leads Current 𝐼(𝑡) lags Over a full cycle, the
in phase with voltage 𝑉(𝑡) by 180° voltage 𝑉(𝑡) by 180° capacitor 𝐶 does not
voltage 𝑉(𝑡) consume any power.
For reactive circuit, the average power is defined as:
𝜙 = 𝜋/2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝜋
Now, we know that for purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by . Thus, all the options except (d)
2
are wrong.
𝜋
For purely capacitive circuit - 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos
2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0

a b c d
Current 𝐼(𝑡) is Current 𝐼(𝑡) leads Current 𝐼(𝑡) lags Over a full cycle, the
in phase with voltage 𝑉(𝑡) by 180° voltage 𝑉(𝑡) by 180° capacitor 𝐶 does not
voltage 𝑉(𝑡) consume any power.
A resistance 𝑅 draws power 𝑃 when connected to an AC source. If an inductor is now
placed in series with the resistance , such that the impedance of the circuit becomes 𝑍 ,
the power drawn will be

a b c d
2 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
For purely resistive circuit
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Power (𝑃) = 𝑍
𝑅
𝑋𝐿
When inductor is connected in series with resistance, the power of the circuit becomes : 𝜙
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
𝑃′ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
𝑍 𝑍 = 𝑍2
Dividing and multiplying by 𝑅
𝑅 2
𝑃′ = 𝑃
𝑍2

a b c d
2 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
The instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage in a circuit are given as
1 1 𝜋
𝑖= sin 100𝜋𝑡 𝐴 and 𝜀 = sin 100𝜋𝑡 + 𝑉 . The average power in Watt
2 2 3
consumed in the circuit is

a b c d
1 3 1 1
4 4 2 8
 1 1 𝜋
Given : 𝑖 = sin
100𝜋𝑡 𝐴 𝜀= sin 100𝜋𝑡 + 𝑉
2 2 3
Comparing with standard equations: 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), we get,
1 𝜋 1 𝑖0 1/ 2 1 𝜀0 1/ 2 1
𝑖0 = & 𝜀0 = &𝜙 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 𝐴 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 𝑉
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 𝜋 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜀 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = × × cos 𝑊 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
8
𝑊
2 2 3

a b c d
1 3 1 1
4 4 2 8
 - -
R e cap
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝑉𝑅 ∥ 𝐼
𝑉𝐶 is 𝜋 /2 b e h ind 𝐼
𝐼 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s in(𝜔 𝑡 )
𝑉𝐿 is 𝜋 / 2 ahe ad o f 𝐼
𝑉𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )
𝑉𝐿
𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

𝑉𝐶
 - -
𝐼 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑉𝐿 𝜙 𝑉
𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s in(𝜔 𝑡 )
𝜔𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )
𝑉𝐶

The total voltage drop in the circuit: The amplitude of the net voltage drop in the circuit is :
2
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑚 + 𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚 2
The amplitude of the voltage drop across 𝑉 2 = 𝐼 𝑅 2 + 𝐼 𝑋 − 𝐼 𝑋 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶 𝑚 𝐿
each of the electrical component in the 2 2 2 2
circuit: 𝑉 𝑚 = 𝐼 𝑚 [𝑅 + 𝑋 𝐶 − 𝑋 𝐿 ]

𝑉𝑅𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 𝑉𝐶𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝐶 Thus, the amplitude of the current in the circuit is :

𝑉𝐿𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝐿 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2
 - -
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 𝒁
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s in(𝜔 𝑡 )
Impedance (𝑍 ) in an AC circuit

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )

𝐼
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐿 𝑚

𝑉𝐿 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼

𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 𝑚
 - -
𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑋𝐿

𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅
Case 1 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 > 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝐶 𝑚 𝑋𝐶

𝑉𝐿 𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑍
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶

𝜙 𝜙
𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝐿𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶𝑚
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚
 - -
𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑋𝐿

𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅
Case 2 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 < 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝐶 𝑚 𝑋𝐶

𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝜙
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑍
𝑉𝐶 𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑉𝑚

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚
In the given circuit, the reading of voltmeter 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are 300 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 each.
The reading of the voltmeter 𝑉3 and ammeter 𝐴 are respectively
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅 = 100 Ω

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

220 𝑉 , 50 𝐻𝑧

a b c d
150 𝑉, 2.2 𝐴 220 𝑉, 2.2 𝐴 220 𝑉, 2.0 𝐴 100 𝑉, 2.0 𝐴
 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅 = 100 Ω

𝑉= 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 2 = 220 𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

𝑉𝑅 = 220 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ∵ 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 i . e . , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐴

𝑉 220
∴𝐼= = = 2.2 𝐴
𝑅 100
220 𝑉 , 50 𝐻𝑧

a b c d
150 𝑉, 2.2 𝐴 220 𝑉, 2.2 𝐴 220 𝑉, 2.0 𝐴 100 𝑉, 2.0 𝐴
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Pure AC circuits
RC and LR AC circuits

BYJU’S 3.
4.
5.
Impedance
Power in AC circuits
Series LCR circuits

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Condition for resonance

2. Graphical representation
S8: Resonance 3. Numericals on resonance
 𝐼 cos 𝜙
E
Apparent power 𝜙
Total power flowing in a circuit is known as apparent power.
Current in
phase
𝑆 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼
𝐼 sin 𝜙
Reactive power Current out
of phase
𝜋
Reactive power is product of voltage and current off phase by with the voltage
2

𝑄 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜙

Active power
Active power is product of voltage and current in phase with the voltage.

𝑃 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

 Power factor
The ratio of Active power to Apparent power is the power factor.

𝑃
= cos 𝜙
𝑆

Relationship between apparent, reactive and active power

𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝑃 = E𝐼 cos 𝜙
E E
𝜙 𝜙

Where,
𝑆 = Apparent power 𝐼 𝑆
𝐼 sin 𝜙 𝑄 = E𝐼 sin 𝜙
𝑄 = Reactive power

𝑃 = Active power 𝑆= 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
 𝐼
Series L-C-R circuit 𝑉𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

2 𝑉𝐿 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑚 + 𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚 2 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s in(𝜔𝑡 )

𝑉𝑚2 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 2 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝐶 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝐿 2
𝑉𝐶 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )

𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑚2 = 2 [𝑅 2
𝐼𝑚 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2]
𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 𝜙 𝑉
𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐿
 𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑋𝐿
Impedance

Case 1 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 > 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅

𝑉𝐶 𝑚 𝑋𝐶

𝑉𝐿 𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑍
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶

𝜙 𝜙
𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝐿𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶𝑚
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚
 𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑋𝐿
Impedance

Case 2 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 < 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝐼 𝑅

𝑉𝐶 𝑚 𝑋𝐶

𝑅
𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝑚 𝜙
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝐶 𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑍

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚
In series LCR circuit, resistance 𝑅 = 10 Ω and impedance 𝑍 = 20 Ω. The phase
difference between the current and the voltage is:

a b c d
30° 45° 60° 90°
 𝑍 = 20 Ω
𝑅 10 1 𝐶
cos 𝜙 = = = 𝐿 𝑅 = 10 Ω
𝑍 20 2

𝜙 = cos −1 0.5 = 60° | 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 |

𝐴

a b c d
30° 45° 60° 90°
In a circuit, 𝐿 , 𝐶 and 𝑅 are connected in series with an alternating voltage source
of frequency 𝑓 . The current leads the voltage by 45 ° . The value of 𝐶 is

a b c d
1 1 1 1
2ߨ݂(2ߨ݂‫ܮ‬+ܴ) 2𝜋𝑓(2𝜋𝑓𝐿 − 𝑅) 𝜋𝑓(2𝜋𝑓𝐿 − 𝑅) 𝜋𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 + 𝑅
 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 = (∵ Current leads the source voltage)
𝑅
1
− 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
tan 45∘ =
𝑅

1 1
𝑅= − 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 + 𝑅

1
∴𝐶=
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 + 𝑅

a b c d
1 1 1 1
2ߨ݂(2ߨ݂‫ܮ‬+ܴ) 2𝜋𝑓(2𝜋𝑓𝐿 − 𝑅) 𝜋𝑓(2𝜋𝑓𝐿 − 𝑅) 𝜋𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 + 𝑅
 | 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 |
𝜙

CASE 1 CASE 2
If 𝑋 𝐶 > 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 ≠ 0 If 𝑋 𝐶 < 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 ≠ 0
𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪
𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝝓 = Circ u it is predomina ntly
Circ uit is p redominantly 𝑹
capacitiv e indu c tive
Cu rrent leads the sou rce Cu rrent la gs the so urc e
v olt age v olt age
CASE 3
if 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 = 0
 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 )

𝑉𝑚 1
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 𝜔𝐶

If 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency ( 𝜔 0 ), 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿

 𝑉𝑚 1
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 𝜔𝐶

If 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency ( 𝜔 0 ), 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿

𝜔 0 is resonant angular frequency

Impedance is minimum ( 𝑍 = 𝑅 2 + 0 2 = 𝑅 )
and purely resistive circuit

Current is maximum ( 𝑖 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 /𝑅 )
 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐶

For resonance condition, 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 )

1
= 𝜔0𝐿
𝜔0𝐶
1
𝜔0 =
𝐿𝐶

1
𝑓0 = Resonant frequency
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
 |

𝑋𝐿 , 𝑋𝐶 , 𝑅

𝑋𝐿
Independent
1 of frequency
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑅

𝑋𝐶
𝑋 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

𝑓0 𝑓

Resonance condition, 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿
 |
2
1
𝑍 = 𝑅2 + − 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑋𝐿
Ca p a c it iv e, Indu ctiv e,
𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 𝑅

𝑍 (Ω)
𝑋𝐶

𝑓0 𝑓

𝑍 𝑚𝑖 𝑛 = 𝑅

𝑓0 𝑓

Resonance condition, 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿
 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
2
1 𝑖 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 / 𝑍
𝑍 = 𝑅2 + − 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐶

𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 )

1
𝑖 𝑚 (𝐴 )

𝑅 3 > 𝑅 2 > 𝑅1

𝜔0 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎 𝑑 /𝑠 )
What is the value of inductance 𝐿 for which the current is maximum in a series LCR
circuit with 𝐶 = 10 𝜇𝐹 and 𝜔 = 1000 𝑠 −1 ?

a b c d
1 𝑚𝐻 10 𝑚𝐻 100 𝑚𝐻 Cannot be calculated
unless 𝑅 is known
For maximum current in series 𝐿𝐶𝑅 circuit,
1
𝑋 𝐿 = 𝑋 𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1 1
𝐿= =
𝜔2𝐶 1000 2 × 10 × 10 −6

1
𝐿= = 0.1 𝐻 = 100 𝑚𝐻
10

a b c d
1 𝑚𝐻 10 𝑚𝐻 100 𝑚𝐻 Cannot be calculated
unless 𝑅 is known
A LCR circuit is connected to a source of alternating current. At resonance, find
the phase difference between the applied voltage and the current in the circuit.

a b c d
𝜋 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝜋/4 𝜋 /2
In resonance condition, 𝐼
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶

∴ Phase difference between applied voltage 𝑉𝐿

𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
and current = 0

𝑉𝐶

a b c d
𝜋 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝜋/4 𝜋 /2
A transistor-oscillator using a resonant circuit with an inductor 𝐿 (of negligible
resistance) and a capacitor 𝐶 in series produce oscillation of frequency 𝑓 . If 𝐿 is
doubled and 𝐶 is changed to 4𝐶 , the frequency will be

a b c d
𝑓/2 2 𝑓/2 𝑓/4 8𝑓
 1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

1 1 1 1
𝑓 = 𝑓1 = = 𝑓2 = =
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿2 𝐶2 2𝜋 2𝐿 × 4𝐶

𝑓2 𝐿𝐶 1
= =
𝑓1 8𝐿𝐶 2 2

𝑓
𝑓2 =
2 2

a b c d
𝑓/2 2 𝑓/2 𝑓/4 8𝑓
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Pure AC circuits
RC and LR AC circuits

BYJU’S 3.
4.
5.
Impedance
Power in AC circuits
Resonance

Classes What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Radio tuning

2. Bandwidth
S9: LC Oscillations 3. Sharpness
4. Quality factor
5. Everything about LC
oscillations
 CASE 1 CASE 2
If 𝑋 𝐶 > 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 ≠ 0 If 𝑋 𝐶 < 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 ≠ 0
𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪
𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝝓 = Circ u it is predomina ntly
Circ uit is p redominantly 𝑹
c apacitiv e indu c tive
Cu rrent lea ds the sou rce Cu rrent la gs the so urc e
v olt age v olt age
CASE 3
If 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿 , 𝜙 = 0
 Resonance

If 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency ( 𝜔 0 ), 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿

Impedance is minimum ( 𝑍 = 𝑅 2 + 0 2 = 𝑅 ) and purely resistive circuit

Current is maximum ( 𝑖 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 /𝑅 )

For resonance condition, 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿

1 1 1
= 𝜔0𝐿 ⇒ 𝜔0 = ⇒ 𝑓0 =
𝜔0𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Resonant frequency
Resonance (Graphical representation)
Resonance (Graphical representation)
 |
RADIO MIRCHI
To hear one particular radio station,
radio tuning is required. BIG FM
(92.7)

RADIO MANGO
 |
To hear a particular radio station, tuning of radio is necessary i.e., vary the capacitance of
a capacitor in tuning circuit of the radio such that the resonant frequency of the circuit
becomes nearly equal to the frequency to that of radio signal received. At this condition,
the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal of the particular radio
station in the circuit is maximum.

𝐿 𝐶 𝑅

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 )
 |

𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥

B a ndwidt h (2∆𝜔 )

𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2∆𝜔
2
𝑖𝑚

𝜔1 𝜔0 𝜔2 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠 )
 |
• The current will be 1/ 2 times the maximum value of current at 𝜔 1 and 𝜔 2 .

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 2 𝑅 /2 At re so na nce , Po we r will b e m a x im u m.

𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅
2 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃= =
2∆𝜔 2 2
2

𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are called as

half-power points.
𝑖𝑚

𝜔1 𝜔0 𝜔2 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠 )
 |
SMALL ∆𝜔
𝑅
∆𝜔 =
2𝐿 GOOD TUNNING
2∆𝜔
HIGH SHARPNESS

LOW BANDWIDTH
𝑖𝑚

𝜔0 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠 )

The quantity (𝜔 0 /2∆𝜔) is regarded as

a measure of sharpness of resonance.
 |
𝜔0 𝜔0𝐿
Sharpness of resonance ⇒ =
2∆𝜔 𝑅

2∆𝜔 Quality Factor, 𝑄

At resonance, 𝑄 can also be defined as,

𝑖𝑚

𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐶
𝑄= =
𝜔0 𝜔(𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅

The quantity (𝜔0/2∆𝜔) is regarded as 𝑖0𝜔0𝐿 𝑖0

a measure of sharpness of resonance. 𝑄= =
𝑖0𝑅 𝜔0𝐶 𝑖0𝑅
𝑅
∆𝜔 = 𝜔0𝐿 1 1 𝐿
2𝐿 𝑄= = =
𝑅 𝜔 0 𝑅𝐶 𝑅 𝐶
 |

𝜔0
𝑄 =
2∆𝜔

𝜔0𝐿 2∆𝜔
𝑄 =
𝑅

1 𝐿

𝑖𝑚
𝑄 =
𝑅 𝐶

1 𝜔0 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠 )
𝑄 =
𝜔0𝑅𝐶
Which of the following combination should be selected for better tuning of an L -C-R
circuit used for communication?

a b c d
𝑅 = 25 Ω, 𝑅 = 20 Ω, 𝑅 = 25 Ω, 𝑅 = 15 Ω,
𝐿 = 1.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 1.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 2.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 3.5 𝐻,
𝐶 = 45 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 35 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 45 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 30 𝜇𝐹
For better tuning, the quality factor of the circuit should be high.

1 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐿 should be high.
𝑄= 𝑄=
𝑅 𝐶 𝑅 𝐶

Value of R and C should be minimum

a b c d
𝑅 = 25 Ω, 𝑅 = 25 Ω, 𝑅 = 25 Ω, 𝑅 = 15 Ω,
𝐿 = 1.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 1.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 2.5 𝐻, 𝐿 = 3.5 𝐻,
𝐶 = 45 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 35 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 45 𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 30 𝜇𝐹
 )

−𝑞
+𝑞
𝐶 +𝑞
−𝑞
 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

𝐵=0
𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑂 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑂 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑂 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑂
++ +

+𝑞𝑂 −𝑞𝑂
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Now the same oscillation

and steps will occur.
 ( ))
𝐿
At 𝑡 = 0,
Current, 𝑖 = 0
Charge on capacitor, 𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑚
𝑑𝑖
Induced emf across the inductor, 𝐿 =0 +𝑞 −𝑞
𝑑𝑡
𝐶

𝐿
At time, 𝑡
Current = 𝑖
Charge on capacitor = 𝑞
𝑞
Potential difference = +𝑞 −𝑞
𝑐
𝑑𝑖 𝐶
Induced emf across the inductor, 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
 ( ))
Applying Kirchhoff's Law

𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝐿
𝑑𝑞
− 𝐿 = 0 … (1) 𝑖=− + −
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑞
𝑞 𝑑 − 𝑞 𝑑 2𝑞
𝑑𝑡
−𝐿 =0 ⇒ + 2 =0 +𝑞 −𝑞
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
 ( ))

𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
2
+ = 0 … (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿

For a particle in SHM

𝑑2 𝑥 2 𝑥 = 0 … (3) 𝑘
+ 𝜔𝑜 𝜔= +𝑞 −𝑞
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝐶
1 1
𝜔2 = ⇒𝜔=
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
 ( ))
𝑑2 𝑥 1
+ 𝜔𝑜
2 𝑥 = 0 … (3) 𝜔= 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿𝐶

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜙)
⇒ 𝑞𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜙
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜙 … (4) +𝑞 −𝑞
⇒ cos 𝜙 = 1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 0 𝐶

𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑚 cos 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡
 ( ))
1
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 … (5) 𝜔= 𝐿
𝐿𝐶
𝑑
⇒ 𝑖 = − [𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=−
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑖 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 +𝑞 −𝑞
𝐶

𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚
 ( ))
1 𝐿
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 … (5) 𝜔= 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐿𝐶
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 … (6)

𝑞2 ′
1 2 1
𝑈= , 𝑈 = 𝐿𝑖 𝐿= 2 +𝑞 −𝑞
2𝐶 2 𝜔𝑜 𝐶 𝐶

𝑈𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈 + 𝑈′

𝑞2 1 2
𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝐿𝑖
2𝐶 2
 ( ))
1 𝐿
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 … (5) 𝜔= 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐿𝐶
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 … (6)
1
𝑞2 1 2 𝐿= 2
𝑈𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝐿𝑖 𝜔𝑜 𝐶
2𝐶 2 +𝑞 −𝑞
2 𝐶
[𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 ] 1 1 2
𝑈𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + [𝑖 sin 𝜔 𝑡 ]
2𝐶 2 𝜔𝑜2 𝐶 𝑚 𝑜

𝑞𝑚 2
𝑈𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = [ cos 2 𝜔𝑜 𝑡) + (sin2 𝜔𝑜 𝑡)
2𝐶
2
𝑞𝑚
𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
2𝐶
 What you already know

Welcome to 1.
2.
Pure AC circuits
RC and LR AC circuits

BYJU’S 3.
4.
5.
Impedance
Power in AC circuits
Radio tuning

Classes
6. LC oscillations

What you will learn

Alternating Current 1. Working of a transformer

2. Types of transformer
S10: Transformer 3. Losses in transformer
4. Numericals on transformer
 Resonance | Bandwidth 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 2 𝑅 /2 At re so na nce , Po we r will b e m a x im u m
𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅
2 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃= =
2∆𝜔 2 2
2

𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are called

as half-power points
𝑖𝑚

𝜔1 𝜔0 𝜔2 𝜔 (𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠 )

Bandwidth = (2∆𝜔)
 𝑅
Resonance | Sharpness ∆𝜔 = SMALL ∆𝜔
2𝐿
GOOD TUNNING

HIGH SHARPNESS

LOW BANDWIDTH

Quality Factor, 𝑄
𝜔0 𝜔0𝐿
Sharpness of resonance ⇒ =
2∆𝜔 𝑅
Resonance | Quality factor
❖Larger the bandwidth, lesser is the quality factor.
𝜔0
𝑄 =
2∆𝜔

𝜔0𝐿
𝑄 =
𝑅

1 𝐿
𝑄 =
𝑅 𝐶

1
𝑄 =
𝜔0𝑅𝐶
 𝐿
Time period of LC oscillations

𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
+𝑞 −𝑞
𝐶
For a particle in SHM,

𝑑2 𝑥 2
𝑘
2
+ 𝜔 𝑥=0 𝜔=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

2
1 1
𝜔 = ⇒𝜔=
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
 𝐿
Equation of SHM for charge

𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑚 cos 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡
+𝑞 −𝑞
Equation of SHM for current 𝐶

𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚

Total energy stored

𝑞2 1 2 2
𝑞𝑚
𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝐿𝑖 𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
2𝐶 2 2𝐶
 ( )
𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝐿
𝑞𝑜

𝑡
−𝑞
+𝑞 𝑖𝑚
𝐶 +𝑞
−𝑞
𝑖

𝑖𝑜 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡

𝑡
 ( )
++ + Capacitor Inductor

Fully charged
capacitor
++ +

Energy

Fully charged
capacitor
(Polarity reversed)
++ +

Fully charged
capacitor
A condenser of capacity 𝐶 is charged to a potential difference of 𝑉1 . The plates of
the condenser are then connected to an ideal inductor of inductance 𝐿 . The current
through the inductor when the potential difference across the condenser reduces to
𝑉2 is

a b c d
2 1/2 1/2
𝐶 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝐶 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 𝐶 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 𝐶 𝑉12 − 𝑉22
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
 1
Energy stored in condenser to potential difference, 𝑉1 ⇒ 𝐸1 = 𝐶 𝑉12
2
1 1
Now, when an inductor is connected, ⇒ 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐶 𝑉22 + 𝐿𝐼2
2 2
Using law of conservation of energy,
2 2
1 1 1 𝐶 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑖 ∴ 𝐶 𝑉22 + 𝐿 𝐼 2 = 𝐶 𝑉12 ∴ 𝐿 𝐼 2 = 𝐶 𝑉12 − 𝐶 𝑉22 ⇒ 𝐼 2 =
2 2 2 𝐿
1
𝐶 𝑉12 −𝑉22 2
∴𝐼=
𝐿

a b c d
2 1/2 1/2
𝐶 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝐶 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 𝐶 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 𝐶 𝑉12 − 𝑉22
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
It is a device used to step up or step down AC voltage by using the concept of mutual
induction.
Flux linked per unit turn of primary Laminated core

= Primary winding Secondary winding

Flux linked per unit turn of secondary
𝜙
𝑖𝑃 𝑖𝑆
Total flux in primary, 𝜙 𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃 𝜙 AC
𝜀𝑃 𝜀𝑆
supply 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆
𝑑 𝜙𝑃
Induced emf in primary, 𝜀 𝑃 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙
𝜀 𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
Total flux in secondary , 𝜙 𝑆 = 𝑁𝑆 𝜙

𝑑 𝜙𝑆 𝑑𝜙
Induced emf in secondary , 𝜀 𝑆 = − ⇒ 𝜀 𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆
=
𝜀 𝑃 𝑁𝑃
 Laminated core

Primary winding Secondary winding

For 100% Efficiency
𝜙
𝑖𝑃 𝑖𝑆
AC
Power Input = Power Output supply 𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆 𝜀𝑆

𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝜀𝑆 𝑖𝑆

𝜀𝑆 𝑖𝑃 1
= ⇒𝜀∝ 𝑁𝑃 a nd 𝑁𝑆 a re the nu mbe r of tu rns in the prima ry a nd
𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑆 𝑖
seco nda ry winding , re spect ive ly . Va ry ing the nu mbe r o f tu rns
in the p rim ary a nd se co nda ry winding , we c a n p roduce a
𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑃 ‘ S t e p u p ’ o r ‘ S t e p do wn’ t ra nsfo rmer .
= =
𝜀 𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑆

𝑁𝑆
= 𝑇 is called ‘turns ratio’
𝑁𝑃
 Laminated core

Primary winding Secondary winding

Practical Transformer
𝜙
𝑖𝑃 𝑖𝑆
AC
Power Input > Power Output supply 𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆 𝜀𝑆

𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑃 > 𝜀𝑆 𝑖𝑆

(Power delivered at secondary coil )

Efficiency(𝜂 ) = × 100%
(Power supplied at primary coil )

𝜀𝑆 𝑖 𝑆
(𝜂 ) = × 100%
𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑃
 :
Based on output voltage in secondary coil
1. Step up Transformer : 𝑁𝑆 > 𝑁𝑃
𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆
=
𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑃
Voltage is stepped up.

2. Step down Transformer : 𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃

𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆
=
𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑃
Voltage is stepped down.
 :

Step down Step up and step down transformers are

commonly used in our household appliances.

~4 𝑉 The supply we get in our house is AC 220

Volts. For example, we need only 4 Volts to
charge our mobile phone hence we use step
Step up down transformer to reduce the voltage
~220 𝑉 from 220 V to 4 V, whereas in case of oven
we need about 2000 V so we use step up
transformer to increase the voltage from
220 V to 2000 V.

~2000 𝑉
Major power losses

Flux leakage: All the flux linked with the primary is not linked with the secondary.
L a m ina t ed c o re

S e c o nda ry winding
Prim ary winding
𝜙

𝑖𝑃 𝑖𝑆

AC 𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆 𝜀𝑆
su p p ly

Flux leakage
Major power losses

The resistance of windings

Energy Loss = Heat = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

Minimise→Resistance(↓)

→ Use Copper
𝜌𝑙
→ Thick wire 𝑅 =
𝐴

Sinc e the po we r loss in a ny e lect ric a l c ircu it is defined a s: 𝑃 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 , h ighe r the re sist a nce o f the
winding s, hig he r will b e t h e p o we r lo ss .
To o vercome this p ro b lem , th ick wire is u sed to m ake t he winding s . If t he wire is th ick, its c ro ss -
sect io na l are a beco mes large a nd he nce , it s re sista nce b ecome s lo w . S o , t he po we r lo ss will be le ss
and b e cau se o f t he t hickne ss o f t he wire , it c a n su st ain high le v e l o f cu rre nt .
 Major power losses
Iron Losses : Eddy currents loss

Eddy c u rre nt in AC circu it p la y s a v it a l ro le in p o we r lo ss .

▪ I nste ad of using so lid iron c o re, if we u se m u lt ip le met a l slot s e lect ric a lly insu lated from e ach
o t he r, we c a n su b st antially re du ce t he e ddy cu rre nt in t he co re .
▪ W e u se e le ctrical insu lat io n b etwee n t he slo t s so that the e ddy cu rre nt doesn’t flo w fro m o ne slo t
t o a no t her .
 Major power losses
Continuous Magnetisation →Demagnetisation → Remagnetisation
Iron Losses : Hysteresis

Whe n we co nstant ly mag netize a nd de magnet ize a materia l, we kno w th at t he re is e ne rgy los s wh ich is
p ro p o rtio nal t o t he are a o f t h e h y st e resis lo o p .
Since the a rea o f hy ste re sis lo op for soft iro n ha s less t ha n a ny othe r m ateria l, it is u se d a s the c o re
o f t h e t ra nsfo rmer .
A transformer having efficiency of 90% is working on 200 𝑉 and 3 𝑘𝑊 power supply.
If the current in the secondary coil is 6 𝐴, the voltage across the secondary coil and
the current in the primary coil respectively are….

Prim a ry wind ing S e c o nda ry winding

𝜙

AC 𝑖𝑃 =? 𝑖𝑆 = 6 𝐴
Su p p ly 𝜀𝑃 = 200 𝑉 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆 𝜀𝑆 =?
= 3𝑘𝑊

a b c d
300 𝑉, 15 𝐴 450 𝑉, 15 𝐴 450 𝑉, 13.5 𝐴 600 𝑉, 15 𝐴
 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝑘𝑊 𝜀𝑃 = 200 𝑉 𝑖𝑆 = 6 𝐴 𝜂 = 90 %

Power output = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 ×efficiency

90
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =3× 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.7×103
100 ∴ 𝜀𝑠 = = = 450 𝑉
𝑖𝑆 6
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.7 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 3×103
𝑖𝑃 = = = 15 𝐴
𝑖𝑆 = 6 𝐴 𝜀𝑃 200

a b c d
300 𝑉, 15 𝐴 450 𝑉, 15 𝐴 450 𝑉, 13.5 𝐴 600 𝑉, 15 𝐴
A 220 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 input is supplied to transformer. The output circuit draws a current of
2.0 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 at 440 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80% the current
drawn by the primary windings of the transformer is

Prim a ry wind ing S e c o nda ry winding

𝜙
𝑖𝑃 =? 𝑖𝑆 = 2 𝐴
AC
𝜀𝑃 = 220 𝑉 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆
Su p p ly 𝜀𝑆 = 440 𝑉

a b c d
5.0 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 3.6 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 2.8 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 2.5 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝜀𝑆 = 440 𝑉 𝜀𝑃 = 220 𝑉 𝑖𝑆 = 2 𝐴 𝜂 = 80 %

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜀𝑆 𝑖 𝑆 𝜀𝑆 𝑖𝑆
𝜂= = = 0.8 ∴ 𝑖𝑃 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑃 𝜀𝑃 𝜂

440 2
=
(220)(0.8)
𝑖𝑃 = 5 𝐴

a b c d
5.0 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 3.6 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 2.8 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 2.5 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
 Alternating Current
Session wise content
Finish

Transformer

Resonance
and LC
AC circuits oscillations

Phasor
diagram
Start

Introduction
to alternating
current
An electric current which periodically reverses its direction in contrast to direct
current which flows only in one direction.
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝐴𝐶 Source 𝑡 2
∆𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡1
𝑇/2 𝑇
𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2
∆𝑞
Average current: (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) = Average current representations: 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = < 𝑖 > = (𝑖)
∆𝑡 𝑡2
∆𝑞 ‫𝑡׬‬1 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Average current (𝑖𝑎𝑣 ) for time varying current is: 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑇/2
1
Average value of sinusoidal AC: 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = න 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (For half cycle)
𝑇
−0 0
2
2𝑖0 2𝜀0
𝑖𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜋 𝜋
 ) 𝑖
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
< 𝑥2 > = 𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 > 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝜀2 > −𝑖 0

1 𝑡2 1 𝑡2 2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝜀 𝑑𝑡 Useful Results :
∆𝑡 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡1
sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
For sinusoidal current and voltage: cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 > 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝜀02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 > 1
sin2 𝜔𝑡=
2
𝑖0 𝜀0 1
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2 2
RMS value is actually the DC equivalent of an AC.
 𝑦 Phase
= Phase of 𝑖 − Phase of 𝜀
difference (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (𝜔𝑡)
𝑖0
𝜔 𝑦
𝑖 𝜀0 𝑖0 Length
𝜀
𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 of
𝑥 𝑖 arrow
𝜀
𝜔𝑡 →
𝑥 Peak
value
Projection on y axis →
Instantaneous value
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
I. An AC source connected only to:

A Resistor An Inductor A Capacitor

Pure resistive AC circuit Pure inductive AC circuit Pure capacitive AC circuit
II. An AC source connected to more than one element.

RC LR LC LCR
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
 𝑅

𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜀0 Peak voltage

𝑖= 𝑖0 =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Peak current

Phase difference 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 = 0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡

Current is in phase with potential
𝑖, 𝜀
𝑦 Phasor diagram 𝜀0 Wave diagram 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜀0 𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖0
2 2
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 𝐿
𝜋 𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑖0 = = 𝑉𝐿
2 𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿
Phase difference 𝜙 =
𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 − − 𝜔𝑡 = − 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔
2 2
Inductive reactance 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Current lags potential by 90°

𝑦 Phasor diagram Wave diagram

𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0

𝜔𝑡 𝑡
0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 𝜋
2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝑖0 2
𝑖0
 𝐶
𝜋 𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖0 = =
2 1 𝑋𝐶
𝐶𝜔
Phase difference 𝜙 =
𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 + − 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2
1
𝑋𝐶 = Capacitive reactance 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Current leads potential by 90° 𝐶𝜔

Phasor diagram Wave diagram

𝑦 𝑖, 𝜀
𝜀0 𝜀 = 𝜀 0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖0
𝑖0
𝜀0
𝜋 𝑡
0 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 2 2 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑖0 2
𝑥
 The relation b/w peak current and peak voltages can be written as:
E0
𝑖0 = Where 𝑍 is the impedance
𝑍

SI unit is Ohm (Ω)

Pu re ly re sist iv e circu it 𝑍=𝑅

Pu re ly c a p acit ive circu it 𝑍 = 1/𝜔𝐶

Pu re ly indu ct iv e circu it 𝑍 = 𝜔𝐿
 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2
𝑅 𝐶
1
tan 𝜙 =
𝜔𝐶𝑅
E0 E0
𝑖0 = = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑍 𝑅2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2

Steady state current (𝑖 ) in the circuit

𝑖0 𝑉𝑅 𝑅
E0 𝜙 𝜙
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑋𝐶
𝑍
𝑍
𝑉𝐶 E0
The current leads the emf by 𝜙 .
 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

𝜔𝐿 𝑅 𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅
E0 E0
𝑖0 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
E0 sin 𝜔𝑡

Steady state current ( 𝑖 ) in the circuit

E0 𝑉𝐿 E0
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 𝑍
𝑍 𝑋𝐿
𝜙 𝑉𝑅 𝜙
The current lags the emf by 𝜙 . 𝑖0 𝑅
Total work done in a cycle is: 𝑊 = 1 E0 𝑖0 𝑇 cos 𝜙
2
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
Average Power delivered:
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝑇
E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Power Factor 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
For purely resistive circuit -
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 0° Power drawn is maximum in a
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 purely resistive circuit
𝑅

E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
For purely reactive circuit -

𝜙 = 𝜋 /2 or 𝜙 = −𝜋 /2 No power is absorbed for a full cycle in

𝜋 purely inductive or purely capacitive circuits
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ±
2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0

Purely capacitive
𝜙 = 𝜋/2
circuit

Purely inductive
𝜙 = −𝜋/2
circuit
 𝑍
Power in AC circuits – (RC combination) 𝑋𝐶
𝜙
𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

𝑅 𝑅
Average Power in RC circuits is,
cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 =
𝑍 𝑅 2 + 1/𝜔𝐶 2 𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍

Power in AC circuits – (RL combination) 𝑍

𝑋𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 𝜙
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 =
𝑍 𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
Average Power in RL circuits is,
𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = E𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍
 𝐼 cos 𝜙
E
𝜙
Apparent power
Total power flowing in a circuit is known as apparent power. Current in
phase
𝑆 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼
𝐼 sin 𝜙
Current out
Reactive power of phase
▪ The portion of power which flows back and forth in the circuit is called as reactive power.
𝜋
▪ It is defined as the product of voltage and current off phase by with the voltage
2

𝑄 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜙

Active power
▪ The portion of power absorbed by the load is known as active power.
▪ Active power is product of voltage and current in phase with the voltage.

𝑃 = E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙

Power factor
𝐼 cos 𝜙
The ratio of Active power to Apparent power is the power factor. E
𝜙
𝑃
= cos 𝜙
𝑆

Relationship between apparent, reactive and active power 𝐼

𝐼 sin 𝜙
Where,
𝑃 = E𝐼 cos 𝜙
𝑆 = Apparent power E
𝜙
𝑆= 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 𝑄 = Reactive power

𝑃 = Active power

𝑆
𝑄 = E𝐼 sin 𝜙
 L-C-R
𝑉𝑚 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s in(𝜔 𝑡 )
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )
Impedance
Case 1 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 > 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 Case 2 : 𝑉𝐿𝑚 < 𝑉𝐶𝑚 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝐿𝑚 − 𝑉𝐶𝑚 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚

tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚 𝑅 𝑉𝑅𝑚
✓ If 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency ( 𝜔 0 ), 𝑋 𝐶 = 𝑋 𝐿
✓ At resonance impedance is minimum (𝑍 = 𝑅 2 + 0 2 = 𝑅 ) and
purely resistive circuit
✓ Current is maximum (𝑖 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 /𝑅 ) For resonance condition,
1 1 1 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿
= 𝜔0𝐿 ⇒ 𝜔0 = ⇒ 𝑓0 = (Resonant frequency)
𝜔0𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
❖ Larger the bandwidth, lesser is the quality factor
 𝐿

Differential equation of charge flow in the

circuit:
𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
+𝑞 −𝑞
𝐶
Time period of oscillation: 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

Equation of SHM for charge Equation of SHM for current

𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑚 cos 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑜 𝑡
1
𝜔0 =
Total energy stored 𝐿𝐶
𝑞2 1 2 2
𝑞𝑚
𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝐿𝑖 𝑈 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
2𝐶 2 2𝐶
It is a device used to step up or step down AC voltage by using the concept of mutual
induction.

𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑃 𝑁𝑆
= = = 𝑇 is called turns ratio
𝜀 𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑆 𝑁𝑃

𝜀𝑆 𝑖 𝑆
(𝜂 ) = × 100% Efficiency of transformer
𝜀𝑃 𝑖𝑃

1. Step up Transformer : 𝑁𝑆 > 𝑁𝑃 2. Step down Transformer : 𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃

𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆
= =
𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃

𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑃 𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑃

Voltage is stepped up. Voltage is stepped down.