Transformers 2

EC2212
Electromagnetic and Electromechanical

Energy Conversion
Transformers 2
26 July - 1 August
Year 2, Semester 2.
1 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don

Transformers
• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:
• Step-Up:
• The secondary winding has more turns than that of the primary winding.
• The voltage at the secondary shall be higher than the primary voltage.
• Step up transformers are used to increase transmission voltage to reduce transmission losses.
• They can be found in generating stations.
2 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don EC2212 - Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Transformers
• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:
• Step-Down:
• The number of turns in the secondary side of the transformer is lesser than that of the number of
windings in the primary side.
• The voltage at the secondary is lower than that of the primary voltage.
• These transformers are used to reduce the voltage at the distribution side of the power system
Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers.
• All flux do not link with each other. At either coil, some flux is lost due to
leakage.
• These are called Primary Leakage, 𝜙𝐿1 , and Secondary Leakage, 𝜙𝐿2 .
• The flux that does link is called Mutual Flux, 𝜙𝑀 .
• Therefore, at either winding, we can say the total average flux is equal to
the mutual flux plus the leakage.
𝜙1 = 𝜙𝑀 + 𝜙𝐿1
𝜙2 = 𝜙𝑀 + 𝜙𝐿2 𝜙𝑀
𝜙𝐿1 𝜙𝐿2
• Along with the leakage losses, a practical transformer also has no-load
losses.
• This draws a no-load current, 𝐼0 , from the primary side even with no load or
current on the secondary side.
• This current is made of 2 parts,
• Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , used to magnetize the core.
• Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , is in phase and proportional to the flux.
• Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , is in phase with the voltage.
• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , is in phase and proportional to the flux.
• The Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , is in phase with the voltage.
• Therefore, we can find the no-load current as:
• Here, 𝜃 is the phase angle difference.
• Also, Power factor, 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃.
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• The flux leakage at either end gives raise to leakage reactance, 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 .
• This reactance, as well as the resistances in the coils, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , given raise
to an impedance at either winding.
• This impedance causes a voltage drop in the electrical circuit in each side.
• Let's take a look at the Primary side.
• 𝑉1 is the supply voltage.
• 𝐸1 is the voltage across the primary winding.
• There is a loss due to the impedance detailed.
𝐸1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝐼1 𝑋1
• The primary side current, 𝐼1 , has 2 parts.
• The current supplied to the secondary side, 𝐼2′ .
• The current used up due to losses, 𝐼0 . This is also called the no-load current.
• The permeability of the core is not infinite.
• This means that some current in used to magnetize the core, incurring more
losses, 𝑋0 . This used current is called Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 .
• Also, as discussed earlier, hysteresis and eddy currents also incur losses, 𝑅0 .
The current to make up for this is the Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 .
• These losses can be calculated as:
𝐸1 𝐸1
𝑋0 = and 𝑅0 =
𝐼𝜇 𝐼𝑤
These losses are represented parallel to the windings.
𝐸1 𝐸1
𝑋0 = and 𝑅0 =
𝐼𝜇 𝐼𝑤
• These losses are represented parallel to the windings.
• Current 𝐼2′ passes through the primary winding with voltage 𝐸1 .
• This induces 𝐸2 voltage on the secondary side with current 𝐼2 .
• Applying a similar technique to the secondary side, we can obtain an
equivalent circuit for the transformer.
• Since all losses are accounted for in the circuit, we can treat the actual
transformer part as ideal.
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer with Referring
• But let’s get rid of the transformation altogether.
• Moving to the secondary side, we need to know the transformation ratio,
𝐾.
𝐸1 N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = =
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
• Similar to the primary side,
the impedance on the winding,
𝑅2 and 𝑋2 , need to be account for.
• The circuit on the secondary
side is:
𝐸1 N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = =
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
• Let's write primary side terms as 𝐸2′ and 𝐼2′ .
𝐸2′ N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = = ′
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼2
• Looking from the primary side, the voltage drop due to the secondary side
can be written as 𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 .
• But we know, 𝐼2 = 𝐾𝐼2′ .
𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 = 𝐾𝐾𝐼2′ 𝑍2 = 𝐾 2 𝐼2′ 𝑍2
𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 = 𝐾𝐾𝐼2′ 𝑍2 = 𝐾 2 𝐼2′ 𝑍2
• Since we will use 𝐼2′ going forward, we can say,
𝑍2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑍2
• Similarly,
𝑅2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑅2 , 𝑋2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑋2
• The secondary voltage and current is therefore written as:
𝐼2
𝑉2′ = 𝐾𝑉2 and 𝐼2′ =
𝐾
• A similar transformation is now done for any load, 𝑍𝐿 on the secondary
side.
𝑍𝐿′ = 𝐾 2 𝑍𝐿
• We can now draw the full equivalent circuit as referred from the primary
side.
• Using the same technique, it is also possible to draw the full equivalent
circuit as referred from the secondary side.
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• To figure out the internal parameters of a transformer, it is possible to carry
out 2 types of tests.
• Open-Circuit Test
• Short Circuit Test
• These tests would allow us to determine parameters including:
• Transformer Efficiency
• Voltage Regulation
• Circuit Constants
• Both tests are done without a load
Open-Circuit Test
• Open circuit testing can be used to:
• Determine the no-load current, 𝐼0 , of a transformer.
• The associated losses.
• The low voltage coil of the transformer is tested.
• The equipment used:
• Wattmeter
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• An AC supply of the nominal
voltage and frequency
of the transformer.
• An important fact is that the
secondary side is left open.
Open-Circuit Test Process
• The supply AC is started at a low value and increased until the rated voltage
of the transformer is reached.
• Take care not the touch the high voltage side of the transformer as this will
carry a large voltage. It must remain open circuit.
• Obtain the following reading:
• Wattmeter reading, 𝑊0
• Ammeter reading, 𝐼0
• Voltmeter reading, 𝑉1
• The obtained values are as a result
of the core losses and the copper
losses on the primary side.
• However, at no-load, the copper
losses are a negligible amount.
• Thus, 𝑊𝑜 can be taken as the core loss, 𝑃𝑖 .
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos 𝜃
• With no load power factor, 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 .
• The Core-loss current, 𝐼𝑤 , is:
𝑃𝑖
𝐼𝑤 =
𝑉1
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃
• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 ,
𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜃
𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼02 − 𝐼𝑤
2
• We now know the currents, 𝐼𝑤 and 𝐼𝜇 , and the voltage across, 𝑉1 .
• It is therefore possible to find the magnetization reactance, 𝑋0 , and the
Core-Loss resistance, 𝑅0 .
𝑉1
𝑋0 =
𝐼𝜇
𝑉1
𝑅0 =
𝐼𝑤
Short Circuit Test
• In the earlier test, the copper losses were neglected as they are very low at
no load.
• The short circuit test allows us to find the copper losses at full load.
• This will also tell us the efficiency of the transformer.
• The equivalent resistance, leakage
reactance and impedance can also
be found.
• Obtain the following reading:
• Wattmeter reading, 𝑊𝑠𝑐
• Ammeter reading, 𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Voltmeter reading, 𝑉𝑠𝑐
• The meters are connected as shown.
Short Circuit Test Process
• For the short circuit test, the high voltage is the supply side.
• The low voltage side is shorted with a thick strip of material.
• The high voltage side is connected to a variable supply, set to 5% to 10% of
the rated voltage of the transformer.
• The voltage is then increased until the ammeter reads the rated coil current
of the high voltage coil.
• Since the output is shorted, the voltage in the core, and therefore the flux
generated is low.
• Therefore, the core losses are low and negligible.
• The power input seen is due to the copper losses.
• The copper losses, 𝑃𝑐 , in the transformer is therefore,
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐
• Also, the equivalent resistance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑅2 , is:
𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
• The equivalent impedance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑍2 , is:
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
• The equivalent leakage reactance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑋2 , is:
2 2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞
• The short circuit power factor, 𝑝𝑓, can also be found.
𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Since we are taking all the measurements from the high voltage side, all the
values, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 and 𝑍𝑒𝑞 , are as referred to from this side.
• The equivalent circuit obtained from this test is as shown below.
Example Problem 1
A 15-kVA, 2300:230-V transformer is to be tested to determine its
parameters. The following test data have been taken from the primary side of
the transformer:
Draw the equivalent circuit for the transformer referred to the high voltage
side and the low voltage side.
Example Problem 1
A 15-kVA, 2300:230-V transformer is to be tested
to determine its parameters. The following test
data have been taken from the primary side of
the transformer:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos 𝜃 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃 𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑉1 𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝑋0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝜇
𝑉1 2 2
𝑅0 = 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑤
Example Problem 1
A 15-kVA, 2300:230-V transformer is to be tested
to determine its parameters. The following test
data have been taken from the primary side of
the transformer:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos 𝜃 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃 𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑉1 𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝑋0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝜇
𝑉1 2 2
𝑅0 = 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑤
Transformer Efficiency
• Non-Ideal transformers have 2 types of losses as discussed.
• This means that the power output is less than the power sent in.
• This lost power is turned into heat and is dissipated through various means.
• Therefore, it is important to know the efficiency, 𝜂, of a transformer.
Output KW
𝜂=
Input KW
Output KW
𝜂=
Output KW + Losses
Output KW
𝜂=
Output KW + (Copper Losses + Core Losses)
Output KW
𝜂=
• Copper losses depend on the square of the current and therefore change with
load. Core losses are constant regardless of load.
• Let’s take an example transformer of ratio 250: 500𝑉.
• A short circuit test is done with the high voltage side shorted. Results: 20𝑉, 12𝐴, 100𝑊
• An open circuit test is done on low voltage side. Results: 250𝑉, 1𝐴, 80𝑊
• Let’s find the efficiency of the transformers when the output is 10𝐴, 500𝑉,
𝑝𝑓 = 0.8 lagging.
• From short circuit test we know,
𝑉𝑠𝑐 = 20
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 12
𝑊𝑠𝑐 = 100
• This 𝑊𝑠𝑐 is a measure of power loss due to copper loss.
• During operation, 𝐼2 = 10.
• Therefore, copper loss at operation,
2 2
𝐼2 10
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐 = × 100 = 69.44𝑊
𝐼𝑠𝑐 12
• From open circuit test we know, that the core losses, 𝑃𝑖 = 80𝑊.
• The power output during operation, 𝑃, can be found.
𝑃 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃 = 500 × 10 × 0.8 = 4000𝑊
• Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer can be found.
Output KW
𝜂=
4000
𝜂= = 0.964
4000 + (69.44 + 80)
• Therefore, the transformer has an efficiency of 96.4%.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
• The voltage ratio between the primary and secondary coil are known.
• Thus, when there is an open circuit on the secondary side, there is no current
flow on this side, 𝐼𝐿 = 0.
• Therefore, the voltage on the secondary side is equal to what is obtained by
the voltage ratio.
• However, when a load is applied on the secondary side, there is now a current
flow.
• Thus, due to the internal resistance and leakage reactance of the winding,
there is going to be a voltage drop at the terminals of the secondary side.
• Voltage regulation is the amount of change seen in this voltage when there is
no load to when there is a full load.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
• Voltage regulation is the percentage of change seen in this voltage when there
is no load to when there is a full load.
• The voltage regulation can be expressed with 2 references, the no-load
voltage, 𝑉𝑛𝑙 , or the full load voltage, 𝑉𝑓𝑙 .
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
Regulation = %
𝑉𝑛𝑙
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
Regulation = %
𝑉𝑓𝑙
Further Reading
• https://circuitglobe.com/types-of-losses-in-transformer.html
• https://www.motioncontroltips.com/hysteresis-loss/
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-basics.html
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-
construction.html
• https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2017/08/short-circuit-test-on-single-
phase-transformer.html
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/voltage-regulation.html
• Electric Machinery Fundamentals Stephen Chapman, Chapter 2.

Transformers 2

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EC2212

Electromagnetic and Electromechanical

1 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don

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