Transformers

EC2212
Electromagnetic and Electromechanical

Energy Conversion
Transformers
19 July - 25 July
Year 2, Semester 2.
1 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don

Update on Labs
• Labs will begin next week.
• Lab 1 and Prelab 1 have been posted on CourseWeb.
• Prelab is due by the Monday of the lab week.
• More information will be provided during the lab sessions.
• Zoom meeting details:
Mechatronics Group Curtin Group Electrical & Electronic Group
Time: Jul 26, 2021, 03:30 PM Time: Jul 28, 2021, 08:30 AM Time: Jul 29, 2021, 03:30 PM
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2 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don EC2212 - Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Transformers
• A transformer is an electrical component.
• It transfers power from one circuit to another using electromagnetic
induction.
• The frequency of the systems remain unchanged.
• Transformers rely on changes in voltage and therefore will only work on AC
voltages.
Transformers
• Our electric grid is highly dependent on transformers.

• It allows us to transmit power over large distances at high voltage and low
current.
• Why?
• Power losses due to resistance, 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅.
Transformers
• Transformers come in various sizes and ratings.
Turn Ratios
• A transformer consist of primary windings and secondary winding.
• Power is transferred between these according to the build of the
transformer.
• The main factor is the turns ratio between the windings.
• If the secondary winding has
half the number of turns of the primary
winding, then the secondary voltage will be
half the voltage across the primary winding.
• Likewise, if the secondary winding has
twice the number of turns of the
primary winding, the secondary voltage will be
double the primary voltage.
• This is also called the Transformation Ratio.
Conservation of Power
• A transformer does not have any additional power input.
• Thus, when secondary voltage doubles, to maintain the conservation of
power, the secondary current is halved.
• Likewise, when secondary voltage halves, to maintain the conservation of
power, the secondary current is doubled.
• Thus, we get 2 distinct equations related to
transformers.
𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃
=
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
=
𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
Example Problem 1
A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz. A
source connected to the 480-V winding supplies an impedance load
connected to the 120-V winding. The load absorbs 15 kVA at 0.8 p.f. lagging
when the load voltage is 118 V. Assume that the transformer is ideal and
calculate the following:
a. The voltage across the 480-V winding.
Example Problem 1
b. The load impedance.
Example Problem 1
b. The load impedance.
c. The real and reactive power supplied to the 480-V winding.
Transformer Losses
• Modern transformers are extremely efficient.
• This is why they are widely adopted in bulk power transmission.
• However, a practical transformer will always have some losses. This means:
Primary Volt Amperes ≠ Secondary Volt Amperes
• An ideal transformer is a theoretical transformer where the power input is
equal to the power output.
• In practical transformers, losses are of 3 main types:
• Copper Losses (Ohmic Losses)
• Hysteresis Losses
• Eddy Current Losses
• Steps can be taken to reduce these losses. Thus, transformers generally
have efficiencies of about 98%.
Copper Losses (Ohmic Losses)
• Transformer windings are conductors, mostly copper.
• While copper is a highly conductive material, it still has some resistance.
• Thus, when current flow through either winding, some power is lost as heat
from the coils.
• Therefore, for high rating transformers, adequate cooling is necessary.
• Similar to any other conductor, Copper Losses, 𝑃𝐶 , can be calculated as:
𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼𝑃2 𝑅𝑃 + 𝐼𝑆2 𝑅𝑆
• Since this losses is dependance on the load on the transformer, it is referred
to as a variable loss.
Hysteresis Losses
• Hysteresis Losses is a type of Core (or Iron) Loss. This means it is a result of
the core of the transformer.
• Since transformers operate on AC, the magnetization on the core also
switches back and forth with the change in voltage.
• In each direction, the magnetic flux density, 𝐵, of the core increases and
reaches magnetic saturation with the application of magnetization force
(Current), 𝐻.
• Once saturated, it will not become any more magnetized with increases in
input current.
• Once the direction of magnetization force switches, the flux density of the
core returns slower than the magnetization force .
• Some energy is lost as some magnetization force has to applied in the
negative direction to return 𝐵 to zero before going in the opposite direction.
Hysteresis Losses
• This relationship between 𝐻 and 𝐵 can be visualized.
• Origin
• We are at the origin point. No current is
supplied and the core is not magnetized.
• Origin to Saturation
• Supply Current, and therefore the
Magnetization Force, 𝐻, increases.
• The magnetic flux in the core, 𝐵,
also increases.
• Saturation
• As 𝐻 increeses further, the increase of 𝐵
is dampened.
• 𝐵 reached saturation, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 and will not
increase with an increase in 𝐻.
Hysteresis Losses
• Saturation to Retentivity
• As 𝐻 decreases, 𝐵 follows a slower path.
• This lag is called Hysteresis.
• Retentivity
• Here, 𝐻 has reached zero.
• But 𝐵 is still positive.
• Therefore, the core is still magnetized
with no current application.
• This is called residual magnetism, 𝐵𝑟 .
• Retentivity to Coercivity
• Now 𝐻 is applied in the negative direction.
• 𝐵 is decreasing but still positive until it
reaches zero.
Hysteresis Losses
• Coercivity
• This is when B reaches zero.
• The value of 𝐻 at this point is
called the coercive force 𝐻𝑐 .
• Coercivity to Saturation (Opposite)
• 𝐻 increeses in the negative direction.
• B follows until reaching saturation in the
opposite direction at 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
• Saturation (Opposite)
• The core is again saturated in the
opposite direction.
• This process then repeats in the other
direction.
Hysteresis Losses
• Hysteresis loss, 𝑃𝑏 can be calculated as:
𝑛
𝑃𝑏 = 𝜂𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑉
𝜂 Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient that depends on core material (J/m3 ).
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum flux density for the core (Wb/m2 ).
𝑛 Steinmetz exponent, ranges from 1.5 to 2.5, depending on core material.
𝑓 Frequency of the AC supply (Hz).
𝑉 Volume of magnetic material in core (m3 ).
• This loss is also given off as heat.
Eddy Losses
• The core is also made of magnetic material.
• This means, as a current flows in the primary coils, a current is also induced
in the core in addition to the secondary coil.
• The is known as Eddy Current.
• This induced current will oppose the magnetic changes in the core.
• The flow of current around the core will also cause heating and ohmic loss.
• Therefore, it is important for
Eddy Currents to be minimized.
• The best way is break up the
core into sheets of conductor
with insulators in the spaces.
This is called lamination.
Eddy Losses
• Advanced high frequency transformers use a ceramic core with embedded
conductor material. This has the same effect as lamination and work better
at higher frequencies.
• Eddy loss, 𝑃𝑒 can be calculated as:
2
𝑃𝑏 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2𝑡 2𝑉
Ke Eddy current constant that depends on core material and lamination application.
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum flux density for the core (Wb/m2 ).
𝑓 Frequency of the AC supply (Hz).
𝑡 Thickness of lamination (m).
𝑉 Volume of magnetic material in core (m3 ).
• This loss is also given off as heat.
No Load Current
• An ideal transformer has no losses.
• However, a practical transformer will always have a small amount of loss.
• A No-Load situation is when there is no load connected to the secondary
side of a transformer.
• This means that the secondary coil is in an open circuit and there is no
current flow.
• However, a small amount of current will
still flow in the primary coil.
• This is the current used to magnetize the
core and the associated losses.
• This is usually 3 to 5% of full load current.
Volts per Turn
• Volts per turn is another way to detail a transformer.
• Let’s take a transformer with a 1000 turns on the primary side and 100
turns on the secondary winding. The turn ratio is therefore 10:1.
• If a 100𝑉 is applied on the primary side, 10𝑉 will be induced on the
secondary side.
• We can also express this transformer by its Volts/Turn.
100
• On the primary side, this is = 0.1.
1000
• This also means that each turn on the secondary side produces 0.1𝑉.
• Thus, on the 100 turn secondary side, the voltage will be 0.1 × 100 = 10V.
• This is another way to express a transformers ratios.
Magnetic Circuits and Transformer Cores
• The strength of the magnetic field, the amount of flux in Weber, in a
transformers core is directly proportional to the:
• Number of turns in the coil producing it, 𝑁.
• The amount of current flowing in that coil, 𝐼.
• Therefore, we can say
𝜙 𝛼 𝑁𝐼
• We say that the Flux is proportional to the Ampere Turns of the coil.
• Increasing either of these factors will increase the magnetic flux in the core.
• Electrical Circuits and Magnetic Circuits are similar.
• In an electrical circuit, an e.m.f. produced by a source drives a current
around the circuit.
• In a magnetic circuit, the coil and the AC within it provides the push. This is
called a magneto motive force, m.m.f. (𝐹).
• An e.m.f. produces a current measured in Amperes.
• A m.m.f. produces a magnetic flux, 𝜙, measured in Webers.
• m.m.f. is measured in Ampere Turns.
• Similar to resistance in an electrical circuit, a magnetic circuit has
Reluctance, 𝑅𝑚 or 𝑆. This is the resistance to the flow on magnetic flux.
• Unlike electrical resistance however, reluctance in a magnetic circuit stores
the magnetic energy.
• A magnetic field will always take the path of least reluctance.
• Reluctance is calculated as,
𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇0 𝜇 𝑟 𝐴
• 𝑙 and 𝐴 describe the dimension of the core that the flux flows though.
• A magnetic field will always take the path of least reluctance.
• Reluctance is calculated as,
𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇0 𝜇 𝑟 𝐴
• 𝑙 and 𝐴 describe the dimension of the core that the flux flows though.
• Reluctance can also be described as,
𝐹 𝑁𝐼
𝑆= = , since 𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼 and 𝜙 𝛼 𝑁𝐼
𝜙 𝜙
• 𝐹 is the magneto motive force, m.m.f., by the coil.
• The unit of 𝑆 is Ampere-Turns per Weber (AT/Wb) or 𝐻 −1 .
• Also similar to an electric circuit, magnetic circuits can have their
reluctances in series or parallel.
• A magnetic circuit that may have many parts of different dimensions and
materials connected in series is called a series magnetic circuit.
• Consider the core shown here with total reluctance being 𝑆:
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + 𝑆𝑔
𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑆1 = ,𝑆 =
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝐴1 2 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝐴2
𝑙3 𝑙𝑔
𝑆3 = , 𝑆𝑔 =
𝜇0 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔
• The unit of 𝑆 is Ampere-Turns per Weber (AT/Wb) or 𝐻 −1 .
• Also similar to an electric circuit, magnetic circuits can have their
reluctances in series or parallel.
• A magnetic circuit that may have many parts of different dimensions and
materials connected in series is called a series magnetic circuit.
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + 𝑆𝑔 𝑆 1
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑆𝑔 𝑆2
𝑆1 = ,𝑆 =
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝐴1 2 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝐴2
𝑙3 𝑙𝑔
𝑆3 = , 𝑆𝑔 = 𝐹
𝜇0 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔
𝑆3
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + 𝑆𝑔 𝑆=
𝐹
𝜙
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑔
𝑆1 = ,𝑆 = ,𝑆 = ,𝑆 = 𝜙
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝐴1 2 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝐴2 3 𝜇0 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝑔 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔 𝐵=
𝐴
• We can say,
𝐹 = 𝜙1 𝑆1 + 𝜙2 𝑆2 + 𝜙3 𝑆3 + 𝜙𝑔 𝑆𝑔
𝜙1 𝑙1 𝜙2 𝑙2 𝜙3 𝑙3 𝜙𝑔 𝑙𝑔 𝑆1
𝐹= + + + 𝑆𝑔 𝑆2
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝐴1 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝐴2 𝜇0 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔
𝐵1 𝑙1 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝐵3 𝑙3 𝐵𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐹= + + + 𝐹
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝜇0 𝜇3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔
𝑆3
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + 𝑆𝑔 𝑆=
𝐹
𝜙
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑔
𝑆1 = ,𝑆 = ,𝑆 = ,𝑆 = 𝜙
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝐴1 2 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝐴2 3 𝜇0 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝑔 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝐴𝑔 𝐵=
𝐴
𝐵
• We can say, 𝐻=
𝜇
𝐵1 𝑙1 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝐵3 𝑙3 𝐵𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐹= + + +
𝜇0 𝜇1 𝜇0 𝜇2 𝜇0 𝜇3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑔 𝑆1
𝑆𝑔 𝑆2
𝐹 = 𝐻1 𝑙1 + 𝐻2 𝑙2 + 𝐻3 𝑙3 + 𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐹
𝑆3
• What if there are multiple paths?
• Rules similar to an electrical circuit would apply.
• Flux (𝜙) => Current (𝐼)
• m.m.f. (𝐹) => Voltage (V)
• Reluctance (𝑆) => Resistance (𝑅)
• Take this circuit,
• The following rules can be used:
• 𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2
• 𝐹 = 𝐻𝑙 + 𝐻1 𝑙1 + 𝐻𝑔 𝑙𝑔
• 𝐹 = 𝐻𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑙2
• 𝐹 = 𝑅𝜙 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑔 𝜙1
• 𝐹 = 𝑅𝜙 + 𝑅2 𝜙2
• Series and parallel addition of Reluctance is possible, similar to resistance.
• K.V.L. and K.C.L. laws are also applicable.
Example Problem 2
A ferromagnetic core is shown below. The depth of the core is 5 cm. The
other dimensions of the core are as shown in the figure. Find the value of the
current that will produce a flux of 0.005 Wb. With this current, what is the
flux density at the top of the core? What is the flux density at the right side of
the core? Assume that the relative permeability of the core is 1000.
Example Problem 2
The depth of the core is 5 cm.
Find the value of the current that will produce a flux of 0.005 Wb.
Assume that the relative permeability of the core is 1000.
𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹
𝑆=
𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼
Example Problem 2
With this current, what is the flux density at the top of the core?
𝜙
𝐵=
𝐴
Example Problem 2
What is the flux density at the right side of the core?
𝜙
𝐵=
𝐴
Example Problem 3
A core with three legs is shown below. Its depth is 5 cm, and there are 200
turns on the leftmost leg. The relative permeability of the core can be
assumed to be 1500 and constant. What flux exists in each of the three legs
of the core? What is the flux density in each of the legs? Assume a 4%
increase in the effective area of the air gap due to fringing effects.
Example Problem 3
The relative permeability of the core can be assumed to be 1500.
What flux exists in each of the three legs of the core?
Assume a 4% increase in the effective area of the air gap due to fringing
effects.
𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹
𝑆=
𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼
Example Problem 3
What flux exists in each of the three legs of the core?
Assume a 4% increase in the effective area of the air gap due to fringing
effects.
𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹
𝑆=
𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼
Example Problem 3
What is the flux density in each of the legs?
𝜙
𝐵=
𝐴
Magnetic Flux Linking Primary and Secondary Windings.
• The flow of flux due to the magneto motive force from one coil would
induce a current flow in a separate coil that is also wound to the same core.
• Thus, we get primary and secondary coils and the transfer of power
between them.
• The current induced on the secondary coil is proportional to the amount of
flux flow in the magnetic circuit.
• Therefore, current induced on the secondary coil is also proportional to:
• Number of turns on the primary coil
• The current on the primary coil
• However, if the m.m.f. is kept constant, the dimensions of the core also
influences the induction of current on the secondary coil.
• This is because the core dimension affects the flux flow in the core.
• Therefore, current induced on the secondary coil is also:
• Proportional to the cross-sectional area of the core.
• Inversely proportional to the length of the flux path.
• In addition, the permeability of the core material is a factor.
• An increase in permeability reduces
the reluctance of the material.
• This increases the flux flow in the
core.
• In terms of induced e.m.f of the secondary coil,
• The e.m.f. is equal to the number of turns into the rate of change of flux.
𝑑𝜙
𝐸 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
• Since this rate is equal to the frequency of the AC signal:
𝑑 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝑁 ; 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝑁𝜔𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
• Therefore, the maximum e.m.f. induced:
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝜔𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Therefore, the r.m.s e.m.f. induced:
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑁𝜔𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 )/ 2
Transformer Construction
• Transformers are constructed in 2 main forms.
• Core type – The windings surround the laminated core.
• Shell type – The windings are surrounded by the laminated core.
• The high and low voltage windings are within each other.
• In 3 phase form.
• The core is made of laminated sections as previously discussed.
• Each slice is also divided into an I and E part
and individually laminated.
Power Transformers
• These are the largest and highest rated transformers.
• Used in the power grid for voltage step-up and step-down functions.
• Due to the heat generation, these are immersed in oil for cooling.
• These have very high reliability, and a typical life span is over 30 years.
• These and other transformers are able to provide multiple outputs at
various voltage levels depending on need.
• At the transmission level, transformers used can be rated over 200MVA and
can deal with voltages such as 400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV and 33kV.
• At the sub transmission and distribution level the rating is lower than
200MVA and deal with voltages such as 11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V.
• Transformers also provide some isolation protection as a transformer
physically isolates circuits.
Power Transformers
Further Reading
• https://circuitglobe.com/types-of-losses-in-transformer.html
• https://www.motioncontroltips.com/hysteresis-loss/
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-basics.html
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-
construction.html

Transformers

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EC2212

Electromagnetic and Electromechanical

1 Slides by: Dr. Anton Hettiarachchige-Don

• Our electric grid is highly dependent on transformers.

• This loss is also given off as heat.

• This loss is also given off as heat.

• Reluctance can also be described as,

• 𝐹 is the magneto motive force, m.m.f., by the coil.

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