EE-322 – AC APPARATUS AND DEVICES

Transformers
Presented by
Dr. Crestian A. Agustin
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering

Isabela State University
City of Ilagan Campus
 Syllabus
Single Phase Transformers:
Construction, principle of operation, EMF equation, phasor diagram; Equivalent circuit,
determination of equivalent circuit parameters, Losses, calculation of efficiency and
regulation by direct and indirect methods; Predetermination of performance by
Sumpner’s test, Load sharing and operation of transformers in parallel, Separation of no
load losses by experimental method, principle of auto transformer; Cooling methods of
transformers.

Three Phase Transformer:

Type of connections, Relation between line and phase voltages and currents, use of
tertiary winding, Scott connection of transformers for phase conversion:
 Why Transformers?

• Transformers are electrical devices used to convert or "transform" AC

voltage from one level to another. (high to low or low to high).
• Input and output are AC.
• They do this by the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Power Loss in Transmission Lines
Why Transformers?
Introduction
 Introduction
⚫ Transformer is a static device which transfers electric power from one
circuit to another without changing its frequency.

⚫ The principle of operation of a transformer depends upon Faraday's

Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

⚫ Actually mutual inductance between 2 or more windings is

responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

⚫ According to Faraday's Law, “Rate of change of flux linkages with

respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a
conductor or a coil”.

⚫ e = -N.dϕ / dt
Transformer
 Parts of a Transformer

A transformer consists of 3 basic components

• Primary Coil or Primary Winding : It is an
electrical wire wrapped around the core on the
input side
• Secondary Coil or Secondary Winding: It is an
electrical wire wrapped around the core on the
output side
• Core : A ferromagnetic material that can conduct
a magnetic field through it. Example: Iron
 Types of transformer
Based on terminal voltage
• Step-up transformer
• Step down transformer
Based on supply voltage
• Single phase transformer
• Three phase transformer
Based on construction
• Core type transformer
• Shell type transformer
Based on type of cooling
• Oil-filled self cooled
• Oil-filled water cooled
• Air blast type
 Types of transformer
• Based on TURNS RATIO
1. step-up
turns ratio > 1
VS > VP
IS < IP

2. step-down
turns ratio < 1
VS < VP
IS > IP

11
 Construction - Core
⚫ Core is either square or rectangular in size

⚫ The vertical portion in which the coils are wound are

called the limb and carries the windings

⚫ The horizontal portion is called the yoke which carries the

flux produced by one winding to another.
 Core
⚫ Core is made up of laminations to prevent eddy
current losses.
⚫ Laminations are made up of silicon steel of 0.3 to
0.5mm thick
⚫ Laminations are insulated from each other by
insulating materials like varnish.
⚫ Laminations are overlapped to avoid airgap at
the joints.
⚫ 'L', 'E' , 'I' or 'T' shaped laminations are used.
Core
 Shell type transformer
⚫ The core surrounds a
considerable portion of the
windings.
⚫ It is a double magnetic circuit
⚫ The core has 3 limbs.
⚫ The coils used are multilayered disc
type or sandwich coils.
⚫ The core is laminated.
⚫ Windings are wrapped around the
center leg of a laminated core.
 Laminations
⚫ In core type transformers, the steel core laminations are in the
shape of 'L' , and these laminations are placed one above the other
alternatively.

⚫ In shell type transformers, the steel core laminations are in the

shape of 'E and I' and placed similar to that of core type.
Types of laminations
 Windings
⚫ Transformer windings are made of solid copper or
aluminum strip conductors.
⚫ The coils used are wound on the limbs and are
insulated from each other.
⚫ It carries the current and produces the flux necessary
for the functioning of the transformer.
 Working of a transformer
1. When current in the primary
coil changes being alternating
in nature, a changing
magnetic field is produced
2. This changing magnetic field
gets associated with the
secondary through the soft
iron core
3. Hence magnetic flux linked
with the secondary coil
changes.
4. Which induces e.m.f. in the
secondary.
Dot notation
Transformers operate only on AC
• Frequency of DC supply = 0Hz
• Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL
• The effective impedance of the winding -very low
= resistance of the copper used.
• Winding draws very high current from the DC supply (I = V/R)
• Overheat & Burnout of windings
 Ideal Transformers
• Zero leakage flux:
-Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents
are confined within the core
• The windings have no resistance:
- Induced voltages equal applied voltages
• The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is zero
- Negligible current is required to establish
Primary Secondary
magnetic flux NP : NS
• Loss-less magnetic core
VP VS
- No hysteresis or eddy currents
Symbol for ideal transformer
 Ideal Transformers

V1 – supply voltage ; I1- noload input current ;

V2- output voltgae; I2- output current
Im- magnetising current;
E1-self induced emf ; E2- mutually induced emf
 Transformer Equations
Using Faraday’s law, expressions for the primary and secondary
voltages is as follows.
d d
E2 = − N 2 E1 = − N1
dt dt
Dividing the above equations we get,

E2 N2
=
E1 N1
Assuming that there is no power loss,
E2 I1 N 2 V2
V2 I 2 = V1 I1 = = = =K
E1 I 2 N1 V1
EMF Equation of a transformer

E1 = 4.44fN1Фm E2 = 4.44fN2Фm
A 250 kVA,11000V/400V, 50Hz single –phase transformer has
80 turns on the secondary. Calculate
(a) The appropriate values of the primary and secondary
currents;
(b) The approximate number of primary turns;
(c) the maximum value of the flux.
P 250 103
(a) Full-load primary current Ip = = = 22.7 A
Vp 11000

P 250 10-3
Full-load secondary current Is = = = 625 A
Vs 400
A single-phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary and
90 turns on the secondary. The mean length of the flux path
in core is 1.8m and the joints are equivalent to the airgap of
0.1mm. The value of the magnetic field strength for 1.1 T in
the core is 400A/m, the corresponding core loss is 1.7W/kg at
50Hz and the density of the core is 7800kg/m3.
If the maximum value of the flux is to be 1.1T when a p.d of
2200V at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate:
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
Transformer-No load condition
Phasor diagram: Transformer on No-load
 Transformer- on load

Fig. a: Ideal transformer on load

Fig. b: Main flux and leakage
flux in a transformer
 Transformer on load assuming no voltage
drop in the winding

Fig shows the Phasor diagram of a transformer

on load by assuming
1.No voltage drop in the winding
2.Equal no. of primary and secondary turns
Phasor diagram of transformer with UPF
load

2/28/2023
Phasor diagram of transformer with
lagging p.f load
Phasor diagram of transformer with
leading p.f load
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer

No load equivalent circuit:

Equivalent circuit parameters referred to
primary and secondary sides respectively
 Equivalent circuit
• The effect of circuit parameters shouldn’t be changed while
transferring the parameters from one side to another side.
• It can be proved that a resistance of R2 in sec. is equivalent
to R2/k2 will be denoted as R2’(i.e. Equivalent sec. resistance
w.r.t primary) which would have caused the same loss as R2
in secondary.

I 12 R2' = I 22 R2
2
 I2 
R = 
'
2
 R2
 I1 
R2
= 2
k
Transferring secondary parameters to
primary side
 Equivalent circuit referred to secondary
side
•Transferring primary side parameters to secondary side

Similarly exciting circuit parameters are also transferred to

secondary as Ro’ and Xo’
Equivalent circuit w.r.t primary

where
 Approximate equivalent circuit

• Since the no-load current is 1% of the full

load current, the no-load circuit can be
neglected
 Transformer Tests
• The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the
basis of equivalent circuit.
• The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02)
- the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary
(or secondary X02)
- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)
- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)
• The above constants can be easily determined by two tests:
- Open circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
• These tests are economical and convenient.
- these tests furnish the result without actually loading the
transformer
 Open-circuit Test
In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and
its primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.

V0
Core loss = Woc = V0 I 0 cos 0 R0 =
Iw
Woc
cos 0 = V0
V0 I 0 X0 =
I
I c or I w = I 0 cos 0
I
G0 = w
• Usually conducted on I m or I  = I 0 sin 0 = I 02 -I w2 V0
H.V side I0 I
I 0 = V0 Y0 ;  Yo = B0 =
• To find V0 V0
(i) No load loss or core Woc = V02 G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0 =
Woc
loss V02
(ii) No load current Io & Exciting susceptance B0 = Y02 − G02
which is helpful in
finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo
(or Xo )
 Short-circuit Test
In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short circuited, and the
primary terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage source
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings
is equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power is
measured.
Full load cu loss = Wsc = I sc2 R01
Wsc
R 01 =
I sc2
Vsc
Z 01 =
I sc
• Usually conducted on L.V side  X 01 = Z 012 − R012
• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the
efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to
predetermine the voltage regulation
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the
input voltage remains constant. This is because a real transformer
has series impedance within it. Full load Voltage Regulation is a
quantity that compares the output voltage at no load with the output
voltage at full load, defined by this equation:

Vs
At noload k =
V S ,nl−VS , fl Vp
Regulation up =  100%
VS , fl (VP / k ) − VS , fl
Regulation up = x 100%
V S ,nl−VS , fl VS , fl
Regulation down =  100%
VS ,nl (VP / k ) − VS , fl
Regulation down = x 100%
VS , nl

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

Voltage regulation for Lagging Power
Factor
Voltage regulation for Leading Power
Factor
 Voltage Regulation

In terms of secondary values

V2 − V2 I 2 R02 cos  2  I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation = 0
=
0 V2 0 V2

where '+' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary va lues
V1 − V2' I 1 R01 cos 1  I 1 X 01 sin 1
% regulation = =
V1 V1
where '+' for lagging and '-' for leading
 Transformer Efficiency

Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and

transformers):
Pout
 =  100%
Pin
Pout
=  100%
Pout + Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:
VS I S cos 
= x100%
PCu + Pcore + VS I S cos 
 Losses in a transformer

Core or Iron loss:

Copper loss:
 Transformer Core losses
Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

and the frequency

These losses are reduced

by using material with a
“thin” BH curve
 Condition for maximum efficiency

The load at which the two losses are equal =

 AUTO TRANSFORMER
⚫ At some occasions it is desirable to change voltage level
only by a small amount.
⚫ i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to 120 V or
from 13.2 to 13.8 kV.
⚫ This may be due to small increase in voltage drop that
occur in a power system with long lines.
⚫ In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two full winding
transformer, however a special transformer called: ”auto-
transformer” can be used.
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

• Diagram of a step-up auto-transformer shown in

figure below:
• C: common, SE: series
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

• A step-down auto-transformer :

• IH=ISE
• IL=ISE+IC
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

• In step-up autotransformer:
⚫ VC / VSE = NC / NSE (1)
⚫ NC IC = NSE ISE (2)
⚫ voltages in coils are related to terminal voltages as

follows:
⚫ VL=VC (3)
⚫ VH=VC+VSE (4)
⚫ current in coils are related to terminal currents:

⚫ IL=IC+ISE (5)
⚫ IH=ISE (6)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
• Voltage & Current Relations in Autotransformer
• VH=VC+VSE
• since VC/VSE=NC/NSE ➔ VH=VC+ NSE/NC . VC
• Noting that: VL=VC ➔
VH=VL+ NSE/NC . VL= (NSE+NC)/NC . VL
• VL / VH = NC / (NSE+NC) (7)
• Current relations:
• IL=IC+ISE employing Eq.(2) ➔ IC=(NSE / NC)ISE
• IL= (NSE / NC)ISE + ISE, since ISE=IH ➔
IL= (NSE / NC)IH +IH = (NSE + NC)/NC . IH ➔
IL / IH = (NSE + NC)/NC (8)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformer

⚫ Note : not all power transferring from primary to
secondary in autotransformer pass through windings
⚫ Therefore if a conventional transformer be reconnected as
an autotransformer, it can handle much more power than
its original rating
⚫ The input apparent power to the step-up autotransformer
is : Sin=VLIL
⚫ And the output apparent power is:
Sout=VH IH
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ And :
Sin=Sout=SIO
⚫ Apparent power of transformer windings:
SW= VCIC=VSE ISE
⚫ This apparent power can be reformulated:
SW= VCIC=VL(IL-IH) =VLIL-VLIH
⚫ employing Eq.(8) ➔ SW= VLIL-VLIL NC/(NSE+NC)
=VLIL [(NSE+NC)-NC] /(NSE+NC)=SIO NSE /(NSE+NC)
SIO / SW = (NSE+NC) / NSE (9)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ Internal Impedance of an Autotransformer

⚫ Another disadvantage: effective per unit
impedance of an autotransformer w.r.t. the related
conventional transformer is the reciprocal of power
advantage
⚫ This is a disadvantage where the series impedance
is required to limit current flows during power
system faults (S.C.)
Example of Variable Auto-Transformer
 All day efficiency

All day efficiency is defined as the ratio of total

energy output of transformer to thetotal energy
input in 24 hours.

out put in watts

ordinary commercial efficiency =
input in watts

output in kWh
 all day = ( for 24 hours)
Input in kWh
•All day efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency - Tutorial
(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF, 1.0 PF,
and at 0.8 leading PF
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging
SOLUTION:


Open circuit impedance angle is:
OC =cos −
1

V
P
OC
OC
IOC
=cos −
1

230
50
0 .21
= 84

Excitation admittance is:

I  0
.
21 −
=
Y
E −
OC
=
84 
−=

849.
135

−
10
84
VOC 2300

=
0
. − 
0000095
j
0.
0000908
 RC =

=
cos
SC
V
I
M =

1 SC −
=

=
cos
47
SC6
SC
1
55
.
4


Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency - Tutorial
• Impedance of excitation branch referred to primary:
1
0 . 0000095
1
0 . 0000908
= 105 k 

= 11 k 
• Short Circuit Impedance angle:
 P
− 160

• Equivalent series Impedance:

V
4
=

=


=

=


S
Z
5
.
4
7
.
8
5
.
4
S
S
I
6
S

+

4
.
4
j
6
.
4


Req=4.45 Ω, Xeq=6.45 Ω
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• The equivalent circuits shown below:
⚫
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (b) To find eq. cct. Referred to L.V. side,
impedances divided by a²=NP/NS=10
RC=1050 Ω , XM=110 Ω
Req=0.0445 Ω , Xeq=0.0645 Ω
• (c) full load current on secondary side:
IS,rated=Srated/ VS,rated=15000/230 =65.2 A
To determine V.R., VP/ a is needed
VP/a = VS + Req IS + j Xeq IS , and:
IS=65.2/_-36.9◦ A , at PF=0.8 lagging
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Therefore:
VP / a = 230  0  + ( 0 . 0445 )( 65 . 2  − 36 . 9  ) + j 0 . 0645  65 . 2  − 36 . 9 

= 230  0  + 2 . 9  − 36 . 9  + 4 . 21  53 . 1
= 230 + 2 . 32 − j 1 . 74 + 2 . 52 + j 3 . 36
= 234 . 84 + j 1 . 62 = 234 . 85  0 . 4  V

V.R.=(234.85-230)/230 x 100 %=2.1 % for 0.8 lagging

• At PF=0.8 leading ➔ IS=65.2/_36.9◦ A
VP / a = 23 0  0 
+ ( 0 . 04 5 ) ( 65 . 2  36 . 9 
) + j 0 . 06 45  65 . 2  36 . 9 

= 230  0 
+ 2 . 9  36 . 9 
+ 4 . 21  126 .9
= 230 + 2 . 32 + j 1 . 74 − 2 . 52 + j 3 . 36
= 29 . 8 + j 5 . 10 = 29 . 85  1 . 27 
V
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• V.R. = (229.85-230)/230 x 100%= -0.062%
• At PF=1.0 , IS= 65.2 /_0◦ A
• VP/a= 230  0 
+ (0.0445)(65
.
2 0 
) + j
(0.
064
)(
65
.
2
0
)
=+

230
0 2
.
9+

0 4
.
21
=
90 ++
230
2
.9j
4.
2
= +
232
.
9 j
4.
21= 
232
.
941
.
04V
• V.R. = (232.94-230)/230 x 100% = 1.28 % for PF=1
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Example: Phasor Diagrams …
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (d) to plot V.R. as a function of load is by repeating the
calculations of part “c” for many different loads using
MATLAB
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (e) Efficiency of Transformer:
- Copper losses:
PCu=(IS)²Req =(65.2)² (0.0445)=189 W
- Core losses:
PCore= (VP/a)² / RC= (234.85)² / 1050=52.5 W
output power:
Pout=VSIS cosθ=230x65.2xcos36.9◦=12000 W
η= VSIS cosθ / [PCu+PCore+VSIS cosθ] x 100%=
12000/ [189+52.5+12000] = 98.03 %