MA3704

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Dr. Wang Yifan

Assistant Professor
Office : N3.2-01-19
Tel : 67905515
Email : yifan.wang@ntu.edu.sg

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 Topics (14 hrs)

1. Electrical Transformers

2. Electrical Rotating Machines

a) AC machines – Induction motors
b) DC machines – DC motors and generators

•Two-hour lecture per week.

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Ø Main text book:

Stephen J. Chapman
Electric Machinery Fundamentals,

5th Edition,
McGraw Hill,
(TK2000.C466 2012)

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ØReference book :

Theodore Wildi,
Electrical Machines, Drives and Power
Systems,

6th Edition, Pearson

(TK2182.W673 2006)

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LECTURES No. 1 AND 2

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 TRANSFORMERS
Introduction

• A transformer is a device that changes AC electric power at one

frequency and voltage level, to AC electric power at the same
frequency and another voltage level through the action of a magnetic
field.
• It consists of two or more coils of wires wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core.
• The coils are not directly connected and connection is through the
common magnetic flux present within the core.
• One of the windings is connected to an AC power source and the
second winding supplies electric power to loads.

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 Small AC transformers

AC high-voltage power transformer

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How does a transformer work?

www.LearnEngineering.org
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Main components of a transformer

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Why transformers are important to modern life

• The first power distribution system in the US was a 120-V DC system

invented by Thomas Edison in 1882 to supply power to incandescent
bulbs.
• Such systems have undesirable high voltage drops and power losses.
Long distance power transmission cannot be done with low-voltage
DC power systems.
• The invention of the transformer and the concurrent developments of
AC power sources eliminated these shortcomings.
• The voltage level from the power station can be stepped up for
transmission over long distances, and its voltage stepped down again
for final use.

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Singapore Electric Power Grid

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Simplified UK Electrical Power Transmission System

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Typical names for power transformers:

• Unit transformer - connected to the output of a generator and used

to step up its voltage to transmission levels.
• Substation transformer - at the other end of the transmission line to
step down the voltage from the transmission levels to distribution
levels.
• Distribution transformer - takes the distribution voltage and steps it
down to the final voltage at which power is actually used.
• All these devices are essentially the same - the only difference among
them is their intended use.

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 Types and Construction of Power Transformers

Core type: Consists of a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the
transformer windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle.

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Shell type: Consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings
wrapped around the center leg.
In either types, the core is constructed of thin laminations electrically
isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy currents.
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Core-form transformer construction.

In a physical transformer, the primary

and secondary windings are wrapped
one on top of the other with the
low-voltage winding innermost.

Shell-form transformer construction.

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If a flux φ passes through N turns of a coil, the voltage induced in the
coil is given by

Due to Lenz’s law, the polarity of the induced voltage will be such that the
current produced by it produces a flux in the opposite direction of the original.
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 The Ideal Transformer

(a) Sketch of an ideal transformer.

(b) Schematic symbols of a transformer.
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Characteristics of an ideal transformer:

• The relative permeability of the core is infinite.

• No leakage fluxes.
• The windings have no resistances.
• Core losses are neglected.
• The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and
between the input current and the output current, are given by simple
equations.

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20
Dots Convention of Transformer

• Given that the primary circuit’s voltage is positive at a specific end of the coil,
what would the polarity of the secondary circuit’s voltage be?
• The “dots” help to determine the polarity of the voltage and direction of the
current in the secondary winding.
• If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect
to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side
of the core.
• If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.

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Power in an Ideal Transformer

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Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

𝑍!"

(a) Definition of impedance.

(b) Impedance scaling through a transformer.
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Example on Ideal Transformer

A single-phase, 5-kVA, 220/110-V, 50-Hz, transformer is connected to a

220-V supply. The load, connected to the secondary terminals, draws rated
current at 0.89 power factor lagging. Determine the load impedance.

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Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Example. A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V, 60-Hz generator supplying
a load through a transmission line with impedance as shown.
a) Determine the voltage at the load. What will be the transmission line losses?

480/
(4.18+ j 3.24)
90.8 angle -37.8
x 5 angle 36.87

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b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of
the line as shown. Determine the voltage at the load now. What will be the
transmission line losses now?

This section is converted into

Step 1: Convert to
NO transformer.
transmission line
equivalent circuit.

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Step 2: Convert into equivalent primary circuit with 10 times less current, 100 times less impedance.

From 0.18 + j0.24

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Remarks:

• This example illustrates the advantages of using higher-voltage transmission lines

as well as the extreme importance of transformers in modern power systems. The
transmission losses are reduced by a factor of almost 90.
• In actual power systems, the generated voltages are stepped up, using step-up
transformers, to a much higher level for transmission over long distances, and
then step-down transformers are used to reduce the voltage to a reasonable level
for distribution and final use. This can greatly reduce transmission losses in the
power system.

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Principal of Operation of Real Transformers

Mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer core

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Component Fluxes of a Real Transformer

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Remarks

• The mutual flux is less than the available primary flux because of primary
leakage.
• The net flux in the secondary is the mutual flux minus the secondary
leakage.
• Less flux in the secondary coil results in a lower secondary voltage than if
no leakages were present.

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Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

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A real transformer with supply source and load

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Since ElP and ElS are proportional to IP and IS, respectively. We
can assume:
𝐸"# = 𝑋"# 𝐼#
𝐸"$ = 𝑋"$ 𝐼$

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 Equivalent circuit of a real transformer

For analysis, it is necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent

circuit at a single voltage level, by referring the parameters to the
common pri or sec side.

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Equivalent circuit referred to its secondary side 39
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• The excitation branch adds another node and makes the analysis more
complex. The current taken by this parallel branch is typically 2% to 3% of
full-load current.
• The excitation branch is moved to the front of the transformer, creating an
approx equivalent circuit that works almost as well as the original model.
• The pri and sec impedances are then in series with each other and are
combined.

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Important!

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Example.
A 75-kVA, 4800/240-V, 60-Hz single phase step-down transformer delivers half
rated load at rated voltage and 0.96 pf lagging.
(a) Draw the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the HV (pri) side.
(b What is the magnitude of the load current referred to the HV (pri) side?
(c) What is the input voltage?
The parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit are:

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Recall:
a^2 Z-L
comes from

a V_s / (I_s / a)
= R_s
= a^2 Zload
ref from primary

Secondary load current is big, but came from 7.81 in pri coil

240/156.25
400x
Reference to Z-load along primary.

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Determination of Parameters in the Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• Open circuit test – The HV side is usually open circuit. Measurements are done on
the LV side.

To determine RC and XM

The LV side is connected to full rated voltage.

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R_core IM^2

to establish mag flux

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• Short-circuit test – The LV side is usually short circuit. Measurements
are done on the HV side.

To determine Req and Xeq

The HV side is connected to a variable voltage source and is adjusted till

rated current flows in the short circuited windings.

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Remarks

• Note that the OC test is usually performed on the LV side. Thus, RC and XM
found are referred to the LV side.
• The SC test is usually performed on the HV side. Thus, Req and Xeq found are
referred to the HV side.
• All the parameters must be referred to the same side (either HV or LV) to
create the final equivalent circuit.

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Example

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz

transformer referred to the primary side are to be determined. The OC and
SC tests data are obtained as follows:

OC test (Data on LV side. HV side opened)

VOC = 240 V, IOC = 7.133 A, POC = 400W
SC test (Data on HV side. LV side shorted)
VSC = 489 V, ISC = 2.5 A, PSC = 240 W

Determine the impedances of the approx. equivalent circuit referred to the

HV side. Draw the circuit.

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