MA3704

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL DEVICES

LECTURES NO 3 AND 4

Dr. Wang Yifan

Nanyang Assistant Professor
Office : N3.2-01-19
Tel : 67905515
Email : yifan.wang@ntu.edu.sg

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 Inductive load has a coil that stores magnetic
energy when current passes through it. This
Transformer Voltage Regulation (VR) means that the current wave trail behind the
voltage wave

Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output
voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains constant.
because it takes time
for current to flow and
magnetise the coil.

DENOMINATOR IS BASED ON THE FULL LOAD.

It is the change in magnitude of the secondary voltage from full load at

rated voltage to no load, with the primary voltage held constant.

In an ideal transformer, VR = 0.
VR depends on the power factor of the load.

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 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
Target: Make V_s as close as possible to Vp/a

<- off by power factor = cos theta.

The leading power factor in an ac electrical circuit is attained by Due to lag (from inductors), V_s is shortened.
the use of capacitive load in the circuit. As in the presence of a
purely capacitive load or combination of resistive-capacitive
load, the current leads supplied voltage. This gives rise to the
power factor generally said to be leading in nature

I_s and V_s have 0 angle.

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Transformer Maximum Efficiency η

Is
Pcore = Pcu

Iron core losses = copper winding losses 5

 To find load current at max efficiency:
I_2 = x . I_2(Full)

Example. x^2. (I_2)^2 R_2e = P_core

x^2 = P_core / (P_copperloss), solve x.

A 15-kVA, 2300/230-V transformer has the following test:

OC test (data on LV side) -

VOC = 230 V, IOC = 2.1 A, POC = 50 W
SC test (data on HV side) -
VSC = 47 V, ISC = 6 A, PSC = 160 W

a) Det and draw the equi. circuit referred to the HV side.

b) Det and draw the equi. circuit referred to the LV side.
c) Calculate the FL voltage regulations at 0.8 pf lagging, 1.0 pf and 0.8 leading pf.
d) What is the efficiency of the transformer at FL 0.8 pf lagging?

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For a step-down transformer, sec has lower voltage

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The Autotransformer

• In the two-winding transformers, the pri. winding is electrically isolated

from the sec. winding. The two windings are coupled together magnetically
by a common core. Magnetic induction is responsible for the energy
transfer from the pri. to the sec.

• When the two windings of a transformer are interconnected electrically, it is

called an autotransformer.

• An autotransformer may have a single continuous winding that is common

to both the pri and the sec. Alternatively, two distinct coils can be
connected and wound on the same magnetic core to form an
autotransformer. The principle of operation is the same in either case.

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• The major applications are in induction motor starters and in
interconnection of systems to change voltage levels by a small amount, e.g.,
from 13.2 kV to 13.8 kV.

• It is to compensate for voltage drops that occur in transmission systems a

long way from the generators. It is wasteful and expensive to wind a
transformer with two full windings, each rated at about the same voltage.

• The direct electrical connection between the windings ensures that a part
of the energy is transferred from the pri. to the sec. by conduction. The
magnetic coupling between the windings guarantees that some of the
energy is also delivered by induction.

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o Compared to the two-winding transformer, the advantages of an autotransformer
are:
It has less leakage flux, cost less, delivers more power and more efficient.

o The main disadvantage is the lack of electrical isolation between the pri. and sec.
windings. Thus, auto transformers are to be used only in applications where the
lack of electrical isolation between the pri. and sec. does not present a safety
hazard.

o A two-winding transformer can be reconnected as an autotransformer as shown.

o The discussions below are limited to ideal transformers.

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a) Transformer connected b) Reconnected as auto step-up
in traditional way. transformer with the primary coil as
the common coil.

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Analysis of Autotransformers

Consider the two-winding transformer connected as a step-down autotransformer

with the primary coil as the series coil.

The two-winding transformer voltage and turns-ratio is

The autotransformer voltage and turns-ratio is

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Apparent power of the two-winding transformer is:

Apparent power of the autotransformer is:

Hence,

90%, 95%, 99% at a' = 10, 20, 100

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• We can therefore see that a two-winding transformer when connected as an
autotransformer can handle a higher apparent power.

• This is because in an autotransformer, part of the apparent power is

conducted electrically whereas in a two-winding transformer, all apparent
power is transferred magnetically.

• Furthermore, as

• An autotransformer is therefore applied for voltage ratios closed to unity.

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Example on Autotransformer

A single-phase, 100-kVA, 2000/200-V two-winding transformer is connected

as an autotransformer as shown. Compute the kVA rating of the
autotransformer.

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Apparent power ratings of Autotransformers

Consider the step-up autotransformer.

The output VA is given by

Sout = VH IH = (VC + VSE) IH = (VC IH) + (VSE IH)

Where

Scond = VC IH - is the power transferred by conduction.

Smag = VSE IH - is the power transferred by magnetic induction.

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Three-phase transformers

• Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in the
world today are 3-phase AC systems.

3 single-phase transformers 3-phase transformer

into a 3-phase bank. wound on single core.
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Wye-Wye Connection

Disadvantages:

a) Unbalanced loads can

lead to phase voltages
on transformers to be
severely unbalanced.

b) Third harmonics voltage

can be large

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Wye-Delta Connection

a) Unbalanced loads and third

harmonics voltages are
handled by the secondary
delta loop.

b) The secondary voltage is

shifted 30 deg relative to the
primary voltage. Prob in
parallel opns of transformers.

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Delta-Wye Connection

Same adv and phase shift problem

as wye-delta configuration.

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Delta-Delta Connection

No phase shift problems.

No unbalanced loads problems.

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The key to analysing any three-phase transformer bank is to look at a
single transformer in the bank, which behaves exactly like the
single-phase transformers already studied in details.

For example, it may be convenient to carry out the analysis on a single

phase of the equivalent wye-wye transformer. Any delta-connected
impedance on either side of the transformer can be transformed to its
wye-equivalent via:
Delta to Y conversion:

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Summary
• A transformer is a device for converting electric energy at one voltage level to
electric energy at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field.
• A real transformer has leakage fluxes that pass through either the primary or
secondary winding, but not both. In addition, there are hysteresis, eddy current
and copper losses, which are all accounted for in the equivalent circuit.
• Transformer imperfections are measured in a real transformer by its voltage
regulation and its efficiency.
• An autotransformer differs from a regular transformer in that the two windings
of the transformer are connected. It has a power rating advantage compared to a
regular transformer of equal size. However, the connection destroys the electrical
isolation between the pri. and sec. sides.

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 Course Requirements on Transformers
1. Required to understand concepts, draw circuits, and calculate parameters.
• Analysis of the ideal transformer
• Impedance transformation through a transformer
• Equivalent and Approx. Equivalent circuits of a real transformer
• Determining Real Transformer parameters by Open-circuit and Short-circuit test.
• Real transformer Voltage Regulation (VR) and Efficiency.

2. Only understand concept, not required to calculate

• Calculation of induced emfs (Elp, Els) and leakage fluxes in real transformer
• Autotransformers
• Three-phase transformers
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INDUCTION MOTORS

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Introduction to INDUCTION MOTORS

• The induction motor was invented by Nikola Tesla (1856-1943).

Three-phase induction motors are frequently encountered in the industry.

• They are simple, rugged, easy to maintain and are less expensive than
DC motors of equal power and speed ratings.

A three-phase induction motor

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 How does an Induction Motor work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQqyGNOP_3o&t=245s
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Introduction

§ Stationary stator – consist essentially of a steel frame housing and the

3-phase stator windings displaced from each other by 120 deg and are
placed in slots cut on the inner surface of the stator frame. The windings are
connected in either wye or delta configurations. Electrical power is supplied
to the stator windings.

Stator winding

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§ Revolving rotor – composed of punched laminations which are carefully
stacked to create a series of rotor slots to provide space for the rotor
windings.

§ The type of rotor windings give rise to two main types of induction
motors:
o squirrel-cage induction motors
o wound-rotor induction motors.

Squirrel-cage – series of conducting bars laid

into slots carved in the face of the rotor and
shorted at either end by large shorting rings.

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Wound-rotor – consists of a set of 3-phase windings similar to the stator
windings and usually wye connected. The ends are tied to slip rings on the
rotor’s shaft.

The rotor windings are shorted

through brushes riding on the slip
rings. This allow external resistors
to be connected in series with
the rotor windings, to modify the
torque-speed characteristics.

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• There is no electrical connections to the rotor. The 3-phase supply is
connected to the stator windings.

• The transfer of energy from the stationary member to the rotating member is
by means of electromagnetic induction.

• A rotating magnetic field, produced by the stator, induces an alternating emf

and current in the rotor. The resultant interaction of the induced rotor current
with the rotating magnetic field of the stator produces motor torque.

• The torque-speed characteristics is directly related to the resistance and

reactance of the rotor.

• Different torque-speed characteristics may be obtained by designing rotor

circuits with different ratios of rotor resistance to rotor reactance.

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The rotating magnetic field

• In a nutshell, the basic principle of AC motor operation is as follows: If

two magnetic fields are present in a machine, then a torque will be
created which will tend to line up the two magnetic fields.

• If one magnetic field is produced by the stator of an AC machine and the

other one is produced by the rotor of the machine, then a torque will be
induced in the rotor which will cause the rotor to turn and align itself
with the stator magnetic field.

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• If there are some way to make the stator magnetic field rotate, then
the induced torque in the rotor would cause it to constantly “chase”
the stator magnetic field around in a circle.

• How can the stator magnetic field be made to rotate?

• The fundamental principle of ac machine operations:

If a 3-phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and differing in

phase by 120 degrees, flows in a three-phase winding, then it will produce
a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.

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The following demonstrates the above:

• Three coils spaced 120 electrical degrees apart around the surface of
the machine.

• A balanced 3-phase currents are applied to them.

Omega: of power supply

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USE RIGHT-HAND RULE.

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 a) The rotating magnetic field in a
stator represented as moving north
and south stator poles – two-pole

b) The poles complete one

complete mechanical rotation
around the stator surface for each
electrical cycle of the applied
current.

c) Therefore, the mechanical speed

FREQ OF SOURCE
of rotation of the magnetic field in
n sync
= rpm
revs per sec is equal to the electric
frequency in hertz.

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a) The four-pole stator rotating
magnetic field. The stator
windings are doubled. In this
case, a pole moves halfway
around the stator surface in
one electrical cycle.

b) The electrical frequency of the

current is twice the mechanical
frequency of rotation.

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RPM

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Example.
60x 0.85 = 51Hz
Determine the synchronous speed of a six-pole 460V 60 Hz induction motor if the
frequency is reduced to 85 percent of its rated value.

poles

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Remarks

• The rotor consists comprised of either conductor bars or windings. As stator

magnetic field rotates, by Faraday’s law, a voltage is induced in the rotor
conductors and a current flows in its closed circuit and an electromagnetic
torque will be produced. As a result, the rotor starts rotating in the direction of
the revolving magnetic field and ultimately, reaches a steady-state speed which
is close to the synchronous speed.

• The rotor speed can never be equal to the synchronous speed.

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• If the rotor did turn at the same speed as the field (synchronous speed),
the flux would no longer cut the rotor bars and the induced voltage and
current would fall to zero. Under these conditions, the force acting on the
rotor bars would also become zero and the friction and windage would
immediately cause the rotor to slow down.

• An induction motor can thus speed up to near-synchronous speed, but it

can never exactly reach synchronous speed.

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