ALTERNATOR PART-II

Requisite before an Alternator Serve a Load

1. It must be brought to its synchronous speed

2. It must be separately excited from DC source
3. It must have its terminal voltage adjusted to correct value by manipulating the rheostat.

Characteristic of Load

1. Pure Resistance
- Power factor is Unity
- It will cause terminal voltage to drop about 8 to 20% below its No Load value.
2. Inductive Load
- Power factor is Lagging
- Terminal voltage will drop 25 to 50% below the No Load value.
3. Capacitive Load
- Power factor is Leading
- Tends to rise the terminal voltage higher than No Load.

From the above consideration, it was learned that as the load on alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also
found to vary. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:

a. Voltage drop due to the armature resistance Ra.

b. Voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance XL.
c. Voltage drop due to armature reaction.

Armature Resistance

The armature resistance / phase Ra cause a voltage drop/phase of Ira which is in phase with the armature
current I. However, this voltage drop id practically negligible.

Armature Reactance

As in DC generators, armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In the case
of alternator, the power factor of the loads has a considerable effect on the armature reaction.

Synchronous Reactance

The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the presence of
reactance Xa in armature winding. Thus, it represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction. Synchronous
refers to the working condition.

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
VOLTAGE REGULATION

With the change in load, here is a change in terminal voltage on an alternator. The magnitude of this
change depends not only on the load but also on the power factor.

The voltage regulation pf an alternator is defined as “The Rise in Voltage when full – load is removed
divided by the rated terminal voltage”

Vector diagram of a Loaded Alternator

DRAW the Vector Diagram

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
Example:

1. A 3 phase, star – connected alternator supplies a load of 100MW at p.f. of 0.85 lagging and at 11kV
(terminal voltage). Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance of 0.66 ohm/phase.
Calculate the line values of e.m.f. generated.

2. A 3 phase, star – connected alternator is rated 1600kVA, 13.5kV. The armature effective resistance and
synchronous reactance are 1.5 ohm and 30 ohm respectively per phase. Calculate the percentage
regulation for a load of 1250kW at power factor of
a. Unity
b. 0.8 leading
c. 0.8 lagging

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
TYPE OF TEST FOR ALTERNATORS

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

The armature terminals are short circuited while a small field current is applied. Adjustments maybe made
such that Ip is approximately equal to the rated load armature current per phase.

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
3
Where A is the ammeter reading during the test

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST FOR ALTERNATORS

The armature terminals are open circuited and the field current is made equal to the field current during
the short circuit test.

With the armature winding circuit open, operate the alternator at synchronous speed. Connect a dc source to
the field, making provision to adjust the field current so that, starting zero, it may be raised until the ac voltage
between any pair of terminals of the armature winding is somewhat above rated emf.

Eoc= open circuit voltage per phase

Where: V – voltmeter reading during the test

DC RESISTANCE TEST OF ALTERNATOR

Assume that the alternator is wye connected if it is three-phase. With the dc field winding open, measure
the dc resistance between each pair terminals. Since the resistance is very low, it will be necessary to use a high-
current rheostat to adjust the current to about rated value, a dc ammeter of the proper range, and a low reading
voltmeter. The alternator should be at rest.

Where: Rt – DC resistance of the alternator between any two terminals

- Ohmmeter reading during the test

Rac= -effective resistance per phase

Note: in practice it is customary to multiply the DC resistance Ra by a factor of 1.25 to 1.75, to obtain a value
more nearly equal to the armature resistance when it carries AC current. Use 1.5 if the skin effect is not given.

ALTERNATOR PARAMETERS DERIVED FROM TEST

𝐸
ZS = 𝐼𝑂𝐶 XS = √(𝑧𝑆 2 ) − (𝑅𝑎 2 )
𝑆𝐶

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
Where: Xs – synchronous reactance per phase

Zs– synchronous impedance per phase

Ra – armature resistance per phase

Eoc – open circuit voltage per phase

Ioc – short circuit armature current per phase

Power developed in the armature per phase or Synchronizing Power

Synchronizing Power and Torque Coefficient

Definition: – Synchronizing Power is defined as the varying of the synchronous power P on varying in the load
angle δ. It is also called Stiffness of Coupling, Stability or Rigidity factor. It is represented as Psyn.A
synchronous machine, whether a generator or a motor, when synchronized to infinite Bus bars has an inherent
tendency to remain in Synchronism

Significance of Synchronous Power Coefficient

The Synchronous Power Coefficient Psyn is the measure of the stiffness between the rotor and the stator coupling.
A large value of Psyn indicates that the coupling is stiff or rigid. Too rigid a coupling means and the machine will
be subjected to shock, with the change of load or supply. These shocks may damage the rotor or the windings.

Synchronizing Torque Coefficient

Synchronizing Torque Coefficient gives rise to the synchronising torque coefficient at synchronous speed. That
is, the Synchronizing Torque is the torque which at synchronous speed gives the synchronising power.

Example:

1. A 60 hz 8.5KW, 440V, 3Ø, Y connected alternator has a resitance between terminals as measured with
dc of 0.18 ohm. The open circuit emf is 400V with a field current of 15A ,Find the generated emf per
phase and synchronous power of the alternator delivering at FL at 0.85 pf.

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
 2. Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which a given field current produce an
armature current of 200 A on short circuit and a generated emf of 50V on open – circuit. The armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage must the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load of
100 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging with a terminal voltage of 200 V.

3. From the following results, determines the voltage regulation of a 2000v, single phase alternator
delivering a current of 100A
a. Unity p.f
b. 0.8 p.f. leading
c. 0.7 p.f lagging

Test Result:

● FL current of 100A is produced on short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5A.

● An emf of 500v is produced on open circuit by the same excitation.
● Armature resistance is 0.8 ohm.

ALTERNATOR EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of an alternator is calculated exactly the same manner as was the efficiency of a dc generator. It
will be recalled that it is first necessary to determine the various losses in the machine; with the alternator
operating under load, these losses includes:

1. Rotational Losses
a. Friction and windage
b. Brush friction at the field collector rings
c. Ventilation to cool the machines
d. Hysteresis and Eddy currents in the stator’
2. Electrical Losses
a. Field winding
b. Armature windings
c. Brush contacts
3. Losses in the exciter used for field excitation
4. Stray – load loss
“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
Measuring Alternator Efficiency
There are different methods to measuring alternator efficiency, and the results may vary depending upon the
method. Therefore, when comparing efficiencies at the quotation stage, it is important to make sure the values
given have been calculated by the same method.

Efficiency is the ratio of electrical power out of the alternator to the mechanical power put into it and is usually
expressed as a percentage.

𝑷𝒐
%=𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Two standards guide the method of calculating efficiencies: NEMA (typically used in the US) and IEC (typically
used everywhere else). The IEC method generally gives a higher result.

A direct measurement of efficiency is obtained by measuring the generator’s power input and output. This type
of efficiency measurement is subject to larger variations caused by the accuracy of the metering used.

However, both the NEMA and IEC standards allow efficiency to be measured by an indirect method. This is also
known as summation of losses measurement. Instead of measuring power in and out of the machine, separate tests
are used to quantify the five types of losses in the generator. These losses can be categorised into fixed losses and
variable losses.

Fixed losses are independent of load. There are two:

Friction and windage losses – These are losses due to the bearings, fans or blowers and the rotor itself.
Optimising the fan design is the best way to reduce these losses.

Core losses – These are losses caused by hysteresis (a magnetic ‘friction’ caused by the alternating magnetic flux
flow) and eddy currents (induced electrical currents). Core losses can be reduced by using a better grade of
lamination steel or modifying the alternator design to operate at a lower magnetisation level. The latter method,
however, affects the generator’s ability to handle reactive loads.

Variable losses are dependent on load. There are three:

Stray load losses – These are losses caused by the load current due to changes in the magnetic flux distribution,
eddy currents and harmonics. They can be reduced by using better materials and thinner laminations.

I2R losses in the armature and field – These heat losses are due to resistance in the windings and can be reduced
by using more copper or by running at cooler temperatures.

Brushless exciter losses – These are small loses due to electrical energy going into the exciter and rectifier.

The reference temperature used when determining the I2R loss is another variable that can influence the calculated
efficiency. The IEC and the NEMA standards state guidelines of how to determine this temperature.

Finally, comparisons of efficiency must also take into account the ‘method of guarantee.’ Efficiency can be stated
as a nominal figure that may include some tolerances on the stated losses. This is allowable in both IEC and
NEMA standards.

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
Yet efficiency can also be stated as a guaranteed minimum number. The nominal number is higher than the
guaranteed on a given machine, so it is important to know what type of efficiency number you are looking at.

Knowing how efficiency is calculated is important in order to make real comparisons between alternator designs.

Efficiency is computed using the equation

Variable Losses (VL)𝑉𝐿 =

Constant Losses (CL) =

Example:

1. Determine the efficiency of a 1500kVA, 2300V, 3 phase, Y – connected AC Generator which operates
at rated output with a power factor of 80 %. The AC armature resistance at 70℃ between terminals is
004 ohm. The field takes 70 A at 120V from the exciter equipment. 𝐹&𝑊 = 15𝑘𝑊, 𝑃𝐶 = 35𝑘𝑊,
𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 1.5𝑘𝑊. Assume skin effect of 1.5.

2. A 2,500kVA, 3phase, 60Hz, 6.6kV, Y – connected alternator has a field resistance of 0.45 ohm and an
armature resistance of 0.05 ohm/phase. The fields current at full load 0.85 pf. Is 200A. The stray power
losses amount of 82kW. Calculate the efficiency of the alternator at full load, 0.85 pf lagging.

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
Parallel Operation of Alternator PART-III

Alternator is really an AC generator. In alternator, an EMF is induced in the stator (stationary wire) with the
influence of rotating magnetic field (rotor) due to Faraday’s law of induction. Due to the synchronous speed of
rotation of field poles, it is also known as synchronous generator. Here, we can discuss about parallel operation
of alternator. When the AC power systems are interconnected for efficiency, the alternators should also have to
be connected in parallel. There will be more than two alternators connected in parallel in generating stations

Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator

There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the alternator. Before entering into that, we
should understand some terms which are as follows.

• The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in parallel is
known as synchronizing.

• Running machine is the machine which carries the load.

• Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with the system.

The conditions to be satisfied are

1. The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the bus bar voltage should be identical.

2. The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or already running machine and the incoming
machine should be the same.

3. The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.

4. The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming machine and the bus bar) should be nearly the same.
Large power transients will occur when frequencies are not nearly equal.

Departure from the above conditions will result in the formation of power surges and current. It also results in
unwanted electro-mechanical oscillation of rotor which leads to the damage of equipment.

Synchronization (alternating current)

In an alternating current electric power system, synchronization is the process of matching the speed and
frequency of a generator or other source to a running network. An AC generator cannot deliver power to an
electrical grid unless it is running at the same frequency as the network. If two segments of a grid are disconnected,
they cannot exchange AC power again until they are brought back into exact synchronization.

A direct current (DC) generator can be connected to a power network by adjusting its open-circuit terminal voltage
to match the network voltage, by either adjusting its speed or its field excitation. The exact engine speed is not
critical. However, an AC generator must match both the amplitude and the timing of the network voltage, which
requires both speed and excitation to be systematically controlled for synchronization. This extra complexity was
one of the arguments against AC operation during the War of Currents in the 1880s. In modern grids,
synchronization of generators is carried out by automatic systems.
“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
There are five conditions that must be met before the synchronization process takes place. The source (generator
or sub-network) must have equal line voltage, frequency, phase sequence, phase angle, and waveform to that of
the system to which it is being synchronized.

Waveform and phase sequence are fixed by the construction of the generator and its connections to the system.
During installation of a generator, careful checks are made to ensure the generator terminals and all control wiring
is correct so that the order of phases (phase sequence) matches the system. Connecting a generator with the wrong
phase sequence will result in a short circuit as the system voltages are opposite to those of the generator terminal
voltages.

The voltage, frequency and phase angle must be controlled each time a generator is to be connected to a grid.

Generating units for connection to a power grid have an inherent droop speed control that allows them to share
load proportional to their rating. Some generator units, especially in isolated systems, operate with isochronous
frequency control, maintaining constant system frequency independent of load.

Process

The sequence of events is similar for manual or automatic synchronization. The generator is brought up to
approximate synchronous speed by supplying more energy to its shaft - for example, opening the valves on a
steam turbine, opening the gates on a hydraulic turbine, or increasing the fuel rack setting on a diesel engine. The
field of the generator is energized and the voltage at the terminals of the generator is observed and compared with
the system. The voltage magnitude must be the same as the system voltage.

If one machine is slightly out of phase it will pull into step with the others but, if the phase difference is large,
there will be heavy cross-currents which can cause voltage fluctuations and, in extreme cases, damage to the
machines.

Phase Rotation

Let’s take the three-phase alternator design laid out earlier (Figure below) and watch what happens as the magnet
rotates.

Three-phase alternator

The phase angle shift of 120o is a function of the actual rotational angle shift of the three pairs of windings (Figure
below). If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will generate its peak instantaneous voltage exactly 120 o
(of alternator shaft rotation) after winding 2, which will hits its peak 120 o after winding 1. The magnet passes by
“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
each pole pair at different positions in the rotational movement of the shaft. Where we decide to place the windings
will dictate the amount of phase shift between the windings’ AC voltage waveforms. If we make winding 1 our
“reference” voltage source for phase angle (0o), then winding 2 will have a phase angle of -120o (120o lagging,
or 240o leading) and winding 3 an angle of -240o (or 120oleading).

This sequence of phase shifts has a definite order. For clockwise rotation of the shaft, the order is 1-2-3 (winding
1 peaks first, them winding 2, then winding 3). This order keeps repeating itself as long as we continue to rotate
the alternator’s shaft. (Figure below)

Clockwise rotation phase sequence: 1-2-3.

However, if we reverse the rotation of the alternator’s shaft (turn it counter-clockwise), the magnet will pass by
the pole pairs in the opposite sequence. Instead of 1-2-3, we’ll have 3-2-1. Now, winding 2’s waveform will be
leading 120o ahead of 1 instead of lagging, and 3 will be another 120o ahead of 2. (Figure below)

Counterclockwise rotation phase sequence: 3-2-1.

The order of voltage waveform sequences in a polyphase system is called phase rotation or phase sequence. If
we’re using a polyphase voltage source to power resistive loads, phase rotation will make no difference at all.
Whether 1-2-3 or 3-2-1, the voltage and current magnitudes will all be the same. There are some applications of
three-phase power, as we will see shortly, that depend on having phase rotation being one way or the other. Since
voltmeters and ammeters would be useless in telling us what the phase rotation of an operating power system is,
we need to have some other kind of instrument capable of doing the job.

One ingenious circuit design uses a capacitor to introduce a phase shift between voltage and current, which is
then used to detect the sequence by way of comparison between the brightness of two indicator lamps.

Note: if the induction motors is connected to the alternator and the alternator rotation is Clockwise, it means the
same sequence, then if the rotation is counterclockwise, they have dissimilar sequence.

General Procedure for Paralleling Alternators

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
The figure below shows an alternator (generator 2) being paralleled with a running power system (generator 1).
These two machines are about to synchronize for supplying power to a load. Generator 2 is about to parallel with
the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed without satisfying the above conditions.

1. To make the terminal voltages equal. This can be done by adjusting the terminal voltage of incoming
machine by changing the field current and make it equal to the line voltage of running system using voltmeters.

2. There are two methods to check the phase sequence of the machines. They are as follows

o First one is using a Synchroscope. It is not actually check the phase sequence but it is used to measure the
difference in phase angles.

o Second method is three lamp method (Figure 2). Here we can see three light bulbs are connected to the
terminals of the switch, S1. Bulbs become bright if the phase difference is large. Bulbs become dim if the phase
difference is small. The bulbs will show dim and bright all together if phase sequence is the same. The bulbs will
get bright in progression if the phase sequence is opposite. This phase sequence can be made equal by swapping
the connections on any two phases on one of the generators.

3. Next, we have to check and verify the incoming and running system frequency. It should be nearly the
same. This can be done by inspecting the frequency of dimming and brightening of lamps.

4. When the frequencies are nearly equal, the two voltages (incoming alternator and running system) will
alter the phase gradually. These changes can be observed and the switch, S1 can be made closed when the phase
angles are equal.

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
• When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from service and the other
alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.

• Load supply can be increased.

• During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will operate in nearly full
load.

• High efficiency.

• The operating cost is reduced.

• Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.

• The generation cost is reduced.

• Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.

• Reliability of the whole power system increases.

Why are alternators connected in parallel?

Solving of Parallel Operation of Alternator

Consider two power sources having different voltages connected in parallel and that parallel combination is then
connected to a load. It seems that Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, which states that the voltage across all parallel
branches of a circuit must be the same, is violated. But it is not.

CASE-I

With load sharing conditions given (load carried by each alternator, operating power factor of each alternator,
current delivered, etc.)

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Two single phase alternators in parallel have induced emf on open circuit test of 230V and 230<10
degrees respectively. Their reactance is 2 ohms and 3 ohms respectively. Given load impedance
of 6 ohms, Calculate:
a. Terminal voltage
b. Current by each of alternator

CASE II – umbrella method

With external characteristics given (kW rating, speed regulations, bus load etc.)

2. There are 2 alternators, 100kW three phase in parallel are driven by shunt motor whose speed load
characteristics are as follows:
A1:NNL = 600 rpm; NFL= 530 rpm
A2:NNL = 590 rpm; NFL = 550 rpm
For what load will the alternator divide the load equally?

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac
CASE III- Vector addition of Apparent Power

3. Two alternators, operating in parallel, supply 2500 kW to a load of a lagging pf of 80%. If one
machine delivered 1000 kW at 95% power factor, what is the operating power factor of the the
other machine

4. Two alternators running in parallel supply the following loads at 4.4kV

which are: 700 kW at unity pf
500kVAR at 0.8 pf lag
300 kVA at 0.707 pf lag
If alternator A is adjusted to carry an armature current of 125A at 0.85 pf lag. What is the armature
current of alternator b?

“Learn the principles and concept while memorizing the formulas and analyzing each problem.” >.<eac