DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr.

J Kearney

Transformers

DT021/4 BEng.
Power System Analysis

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS .............................................................................................................. 2
Transformers .................................................................................................................... 2
Impedance Transformation .......................................................................................... 3
Losses in the core. ........................................................................................................ 4
Single - Phase Autotransformers ..................................................................................... 6
Three-phase Transformers ............................................................................................. 10
Three Phase transformer connections ........................................................................ 13
Harmonics in Three-Phase Transformers .................................................................. 16
Star without neutral ................................................................................................... 20
Tertiary winding......................................................................................................... 23
REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER ................................................................. 25
Parallel Operation of Transformers ............................................................................... 26
Parallel Operation Of Single-phase Transformers ..................................................... 27
Tertiary winding............................................................................................................. 30

Transformers - Recap
Single phase transformer.
m

l1

l2
i2

i1
V1

V2

Primary winding
N1 turns

Secondary winding
N2 turns
Fig. 1

A transformer-two or more coils of wire physically wrapped around a ferromagnetic core.

The figure above shows two coils of wire conductor wrapped around a transformer core.
The magnetic fluxes can be split into three distinct components. There is a mutual flux m
contained within the magnetic core that links all the turns of the primary and secondary
windings. There is a leakage flux l1 that links only the primary circuit, and similarly a
secondary leakage flux l2 that links only the secondary circuit. These components of flux
are shown in the figure 1 above.

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

The dot convention determines the polarity of the voltages and currents in the core
without having to examine the windings. The significance of the dots is that a current
flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive magnetomotive force, F,
while a current flowing out will produce a negative magnetomotive force. If one current
flows into a dotted end of a winding and one flows out of a dotted end, then the
magnetomotive forces will subtract from each other.
From a modelling point of view, a physical power transformer is reasonably close to an
ideal transformer
V1
=
d1/dt
=
N1 d/dt
Since the same flux passes through the N2 turns of the secondary winding, the
secondary voltage is
V2
=
d2/dt
=
N2 d/dt
and the voltage ratio:
V2/V1 =
N2/N1
=
n
where n is the ratio of secondary turns to primary turns. Frequently, it is also convenient
to work with the reciprocal of n. This is called the transformation turns ratio:
a

N1/N2 =

1/n

Since the core is assumed to have infinite permeability, the reluctance is zero. i.e the net
mmf required to establish a flux in the ideal core is zero. Thus:

so

N1i1
i2/i1

=
=

N1i1 - N2i2
N2i2
N1/N2

1/n

Transformation relationship.

V1
V2

N1
N2

or power V1 i1

I2
I1

V2 i2

Impedance Transformation

V2

V1

Z2

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

Fig . Ideal Transformer

The figure above shows impedance Z2 connected to the secondary of a transformer.

V2
V1

V1
I1

or

N2
N1

I2Z2

N
Z2 1
N2

I1 Z2

N1
N2

a2 Z2

Z2`

Z2` is the impedance seen form the primary of the transformer and is equal to the
impedance of the secondary multiplied by the turns ration squared.
Assumptions required for an ideal Transformer.

The core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents.

The magnetising curve must have a shape as shown below in figure fig 2 below;
the net magnetising force F = 0, implying that Np ip = Ns Is.
The leakage flux in the core must be zero, implying that all the flux in the core
couples both windings.
The resistance of the transformer windings must be zero.
The permeability of the core material is infinite, (reluctance is zero).

The above assumptions are for an ideal transformer, and are not normal in a practical
transformer, however the Ideal Transformer is often used because of its simplicity.
i1

i2= a i1

V2 = V1/a

V1

Fig . Ideal Transformer

Losses in the core.

The losses associated with the core include hysteresis and eddy currents. Hysteresis losses
will depend on the hysteresis characteristics of the core steel. Eddy currents are reduced
by considerably by constructing the core from thin laminations. When the laminations are
insulated, eddy currents are confined to within each lamination, reducing the magnitude of
these currents.
A hysteresis curve of a practical transformer is shown below,

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

(wb)

In discussions of an ideal transformer above, it was assumed that the permeability of the
core material was infinite and as a result zero current required to magnetise the core since
the reluctance was zero. The second assumption regarding the ideal transformer was that
there were no losses in the core. In practical transformers the above assumptions are not
valid
When a transformer is operating with an open circuit secondary, a small current with a
very low power factor will be measured at the primary, so some current is required to
magnetise the core. This comprises the current required to magnetise the core and the inphase component required to supply the power loss in the core. The power losses result
form eddy currents and hysteresis.
I

Fig.
Eddy current can be reduced by a considerable degree by constructing the core from thin
laminations. The laminations are insulated and the path for the eddy currents is thus
confined within each lamination. Figure .. above shows the effect of laminations on the
flow of eddy currents.
The eddy current and hysteresis losses may be modelled using resistances in parallel with
the magnetising inductance where Re is the eddy current loss and Rh is the hysteresis loss.
Both eddy current and hysteresis losses may be combined to give a core (iron) loss Rc.
io
Rc

Xm

V1

V2

Vin

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

Fig .

The magnetising inductance Xm, accounts for the fact that some current, Io is required to
energise the core. This current, Io lags the applied voltage by 90o and hence is in phase
with the core flux. The magnetising branch is in parallel with the core loss resistance, and
depends on the applied voltage.
Leakage reactance and winding resistances.
The power losses associated with the winding resistances, I12R1 for the primary and I22R2
for the secondary where R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary resistances respectively.
The total I2R loss, transformer copper loss is
Pcu

I12R1 + I22R2

Leakage Flux. See Fig 1

1.1 Single Phase Equivalent Circuit

is

jX1

R1

i`r

jX2`

R 2`

io
im
jXm

ic

Vin

Rc

Vout

Fig. Transformer Equivalent Circuits

Single - Phase Autotransformers

An autotransformer is a single winding transformer, part of which is common to both the
primary and secondary. A typical arrangement is shown in the figure. The primary
corresponding to the full winding and the secondary is tapped of at some intermediate
point along the winding.

DT021/4 M1 Electrical Power Dr. J Kearney

I1

I2
+

+
Series Winding

N1=Ns

N1=Ns

I2

I1

+
Common
Winding

N2=Nc

V2

ZL

ZL

N2=Nc
V1

Step-Down autotransformer

Step-up autotransformer
Advantages:
o A tap between primary and secondary sides which may be adjustable to provide stepup/down capability
o Able to transfer larger S apparent power than the two winding transformer
o Smaller and lighter than an equivalent two-winding transformer
Disadvantage:
o Lacks electrical isolation
A Step Down Autotransformer:
V1/V2 =
And

(N1+N2) /N2 = 1 + N1/N2

I1/I2

= N2 / (N1+N2)

A Step Up Autotransformer:
V1/V2 =
N1/(N1+N2)
I1/I2

(N1+N2)/N2

N1=Ns
I1

V2

N2=Nc
V1
-

Step-up autotransformer

ZL

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

V1/V2 =

N1 /(N1+N2)
And

I1/I2

= (N1+N2) / N2

Example
An autotransformer with a 40% tap is supplied by a 400-V, 50-Hz source and is used for
step-down operation. A 5-kVA load operating at unity power factor is connected to the
secondary terminals. Find: (a) the secondary voltage, (b) the secondary current, (c) the
primary current.
(a)

V1/V2 =
(N1+N2) /N2 = 1/0.4
V2 = 0.4 V1 = 0.4 . 400 = 160V

(b)
(c)

S2 = I2 V2 = 5,000 .. I2 = 5000/160 = 31.25A

S2 = S1 = I1 V1 = 5,000 .. I1 = 5000/400 = 12.5A

On occasions it is desirable to change a voltage level by only a small amount. For

example it may be necessary to increase a voltage from 210 V to 220 V or from 9.4 kV to
10 kV. These small rises may be made necessary by voltage drops that occur in power
systems a long way from generators. The use of autotransformers is less expensive is such
situations, and there is a also reduction in copper loss and leakage reactance. However
they have the disadvantage that the secondary is not insulated from the primary.
Autotransformers are more commonly used in power systems whenever two voltages are
fairly close to each other in level to be transformed, because the closer the two voltages
are, the greater the autotransformer power advantage becomes.
SIo/Sw =
(Ns +Nc)Ns
They are also used as variable transformers, where the low-voltage tap moves up and
down the windings. This is very convenient way to get a variable AC voltage i.e. variac.

A variac is an autotransformer with a variable tapping as shown in the figure. In this way
the secondary voltage can be varied. Variacs usually consist of a toroidal core and the
output is obtained from a sliding contact attached to a rotating shaft.

Three-phase autotransformers are normally star connected.

1.3 Tapchangers

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Large transformers are often equipped with a tapping in the low voltage winding to enable
the turns ratio to be changed. If the tap changer has switches capable of diverting the
current in the coils, the tap change operation can be carried out under load the On-Load
Tapchanger or OLTC.

7 + j70 ohms

220 kV
Infinite bus

T:1 0.9:1pu
1.4 Transformer Construction & Rating
Transformers are limited by
(a) core saturation,
(b) winding, insulation and oil temperature rise,
(c) vibration and noise.
If the applied voltage rises to high, the magnetising current will increase considerably
causing waveform problems. Loss of life of insulation is generally held to be dependant
on the integral of the hot spot temperature over life, i.e. there is a finite amount of life in
the tank and the hotter the transformer is run the quicker the tank is emptied (just like
fuel consumption in a car). In addition there are absolute values that must not be
exceeded.
Due to the large mass of a transformer, there is an appreciable time lag of hot spot
temperature on applied load so an overload of 20 ~ 30% for a few hours is normally OK
as long as the load then falls back below nominal 100% for a few hours. Transformers are
thus best sited out of the sun and in a place where a good air flow can be obtained.
The leakage reactance of a transformer is determined by the physical spacing of the
windings from each other and from the core. As voltage levels increase the need for
higher insulation levels and hence clearances also increase. Thus the higher the voltage
the higher the per unit impedance of the transformer. Note that in calculating per unit
impedances a Base MVA value has to be assigned. This will normally be the name plate
rating.
However this rating is set by the type of cooling system being used (oil natural
circulation, external radiators with fans to the extreme of force circulation, directed oil
flow with high efficiency fans cooled radiators). These systems are described by a number
of acronyms
ONAN = oil natural (circulation), air natural (circulation past a radiator fin)
OFDAF = oil forced directed (flow), air forced (ie fans on radiators).
There are also dry type and water cooled versions of the above. The greater the effort used
to cool the transformer the shorter its thermal time constant will be and hence the
OFDAF transformer will be less capable of accepting cyclic loads.
The core can be constructed

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Three-phase Core Type Transformer

1.Three single-phase transformers connected in a three-phase bank.
2. Three sets of windings wrapped on a common core.
R
Y
B

N
3-limb core Fig.
Y
B

10

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Fig.
Y

Shell type
B

Fig. 5

N
Limb type

Transformer Construction
The dried and treated transformer is placed in a steel tank.
The tank is filled, under vacuum, with heated transformer oil.
The end of the windings are connected to bushings.
The oil is circulated by pumps and forced through the radiators.

Transformer Construction
The transformer is equipped with cooling radiators which are cooled by forced
ventilation.
Cooling fans are installed under the radiators.
Large bushings connect the windings to the electrical system.
The oil is circulated by pumps and forced through the radiators.
The oil temperature, pressure are monitored to predict transformer performance.
Dry type transformers are used at medium and low voltage.
The assembled transformer is moulded in epoxy resin which surrounds both the
windings and iron core.
The winding is vacuumed and dried before the moulding.

11

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

The slide shows a three phase, dry type transformer.

The slide shows cross section of a pole mounted, single phase distribution transformer.
The transformer is placed a in steel tank filled with oil.
The laminated iron core id held together by insulated bolts.
The windings are separated by insulating tubes.
Cooling ducts are provided between the low and high voltage windings to assure
proper oil circulation.

Small single phase oil transformer

Three-phase Transformers
The theory applied to single-phase transformers equally applies to three-phase
transformers by the inclusion of the factors 3 or 3. The existing transformers is described
in main outline in Fig below:
(0.03+j0.092)

4,500V

(0.44+j1.34)

16,000V

V2

15,000kVA
Ifl = 93.75A
Imag =17.8A
Ip = 346.4A
Iron Loss =12kW

72 : 256 turns

Fig
The same general format for a transformer but wound for three phases connected as a starstar produces a comparable arrangement as shown in Fig..
The mag current and iron losses would not necessarily change in a proportion of 3 or 3,
since the iron configuration in unlikely to be exactly equivalent to three single-phase
transformers operating a star-star system. However, a per-phase value of Io of 17.8A and
a total iron loss of 3 . 12 kW = 36 kW would not be too far from actual values.

12

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

(0.03+j0.092)
/phase

(0.44+j1.34)
phase
Primary
Secondary
y

4,500kVA

Vph = 4,500V
VLL = 7,800V
Iph =346.48A
Ip = 346.4A on full
load

72 : 256
turns/phase

Vph = 16,000V
VLL = 27,700V
Ifl =93.75A

Fig
Changing the transformer connections to a different form, star-delta, such as in Fig
below..
(0.03+j0.092)
/phase

(0.44+j1.34)
phase
Primary

Secondary
y
4,500kVA

72 : 256
turns/phase

Fig.
Three single-phase transformers connected in four possible ways:
Connection
YY
Y

Primary
VL
Vph
7800 4500
7800 4500
4500 4500
4500 4500

IL
346
346
600
600

Iph
346
346
346
346

VL
27700
16000
16000
27000

Secondary
Vph
IL
16000
93.8
16000
162
16000
162
16000
93.8

Iph
93.8
93.8
93.8
93.8

kVA
4500
4500
4500
4500

Fig
Three Phase transformer connections
Most common is the delta-star connection. The star point is earthed and hence normally
appears in the secondary (lower voltage) circuit. At very high primary voltages it is
common to use a star connected winding with the insulation graded so that there is less
insulation (and hence cost) the closer to the earthed star you get. Star-star have tertiary
windings (normally a delta connection) whose purpose is to provide a closed path for 3rd
harmonic currents necessary to magnetise the core and maintain sinusoidal voltages.

13

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

If the transformer is energised from a stiff (strong, high fault level) busbar then the
magnetising current would like to be non-sinusoidal (peaky) but the unearthed star
winding does not permit third harmonic current to flow so the output voltage must be nonsinusoidal. If however a closed delta winding is connected on the same core, the 150Hz
current necessary to produce a sinusoidal output voltage can flow. Even when both the
star points are earthed a delta connected tertiary winding is normally present to both
provide a closed low impedance path for the 3rd harmonics and to allow some power to be
tapped off for substation control.
Where large power electronic converters have to be connected to a HV supply, the
associated transformer may be made as a pair of 3phase units with a phase displacement
of 30 degrees between the two sets of voltages to cancel the 5th & 7th harmonics (see later
notes).
( Symmonds).

A three-phase transformer can be constructed of three-single phase transformers, of the

type shown in Figure 1 suitably connected on a single core. The windings can be
connected either in star or delta and various combinations are used.
The four schemes, namely, star/star, delta/delta, delta/star, and star/delta are well known.
Star/star propagates 3rd harmonics from the source to load side; a problem. A third
winding called tertiary could solve this problem. Other problems with it are poor in
voltage regulation for 1 loads and neutral inversion (neutral shift outside of line voltage
triangle). Star/delta is good and often used. No harmonic problem and source for ground
current is present.
Other connections worthy of consideration are (1) open star/delta and (2) open delta/open
delta. These are usually used when one single-phase unit of the three-phase bank goes out
of service. Schematics for several of these connection are attached to this material.
Advantages of Star connection:
Lower voltages per winding (requiring fewer turns);
One end of winding can be earthed;
Neutral point is available for 4-wire distribution;
Accepts unbalanced currents but passes them on.
Advantages of delta connection:
Can circulate 3rd harmonic currents.
Dissipates unbalanced currents.
Star connection.
In a star system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of
voltage on a three phase system. However, the voltage between any one of the phase
conductors R,Y or B and the neutral will be less than the power conductors. For example,
if the voltage between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is
400v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 230v. This is due to
the square root of three phase power. In a star system, the voltage between any two power
conductors will always be 3 times the voltage between the neutral and any one of the
power phase conductors.

14

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

A star-connected winding has a voltage across it of only of the line voltage. This enables
its insulation to be reduced to a minimum for a given supply voltage and make it the most
economic connection for a high-voltage winding. The star point is available if a neutral
point is required. In a 3-wire system, where the star point is not solidly earthed, the thirdharmonic e.m.f.s, will make the neutral unstable.
Delta Connection.
A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for neighborhood
and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation. Only one voltage is vailable
between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be illustrated by a simple
triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire
delta system. The voltage would be the same between any two wires.
The transformer must be insulated for the full line voltage, but will only carry
of the line current. Thus it is the most economical connection for a low-voltage winding.
The main drawback is that there is no neutral point and so it is unstable for general
4-wire supplies. The closed circuit formed by the delta connection produces a circulating
third-harmonic current. This eliminates the third-harmonic e.m.f.s from the external
circuit and also improves the magnetic flux wave in the core, so that third-harmonic
effects become negligible in the outer winding, which may be star connected. The delta
winding is more effective for unbalanced load conditions.
A number of the more common transformer connections are given below.
Star-Star.
Economical for H.V. transformers, but neutral unstable if not solidly earthed. Not
suitable for general supplies with unbalanced load. Generally used for small balanced
power loads.
Delta - Delta.
Economical for L.V. transformers. Third harmonics are damped out. Large
unbalanced loads can be supplied, but this connection is not often used as there is no
neutral point and a four-wire supply cannot be given.
Star - Delta.
Delta winding damps out the third harmonic e.m.f.s and stabilises the star point
of the primary. There is no secondary neutral and four-wire supplies cannot be given. The
main use is as a step down transformer to supply balanced three phase loads.
Delta - Star.
This is the most commonly used connection for general supplies, although as a
step-down transformer, the windings are not the most economical. The secondary star
point can be earthed and a four-wire supply given. Since there is a delta winding
(primary), the third-harmonic e.m.f. is damped and both balanced and unbalanced loads
can be supplied.
What is the meaning of DYN 11 on a transformer nameplate
Answer

15

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

What does Dd0, Dyn11, YNd5 etc. mean?

First symbol/symbols, capital letters: HV winding connection.
Second symbol/symbols, small letters: LV winding connection.
Third symbol, number: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number.
Winding connection designations
High Voltage Always capital letters
Delta - D
Star - S
Interconnected star - Z
Neutral brought out - N
Low voltage Always small letters
Delta - d
Star - s
Interconnected star - z
Neutral brought out - n
Phase displacement
Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (international adopted convention)
Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there are 12
hours on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360, each hour represents 30.
Thus 1 = 30, 2 = 60, 3 = 90, 6 = 180 and 12 = 0 or 360. The minute hand is set on
12 o'clock and replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes imaginary) of the HV
winding. This position is always the reference point.
Because rotation is anti-clockwise, 1 = 30 lagging (LV lags HV with 30)and 11 = 330
lagging or 30 leading (LV leads HV with 30)
To summarise:
Dd0
Delta connected HV winding, delta connected LV winding, no phase shift between HV
and LV.
Dyn11
Delta connected HV winding, star connected LV winding with neutral brought out, LV is
leading HV with 30
YNd5
Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, delta connected LV winding, LV
lags HV with 150
Harmonics in Three-Phase Transformers
The magnetising curve of a transformer core is non-linear due to saturation and hysteresis
effects. The core material can be represented by a hysteresis loop to model the relation
between m and the exciting current i. Assuming that m is sinusoidal, the construction of
the fig. below reveals that the resulting current i is not sinusoidal, but is periodic.
Magnetic core saturation of power transformers and rotating machines can generate
harmonics. Fig. 1 illustrates the principle of harmonics generation from magnetic core

16

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

saturation[1]. In order to maintain a sinusoidal voltage, sinusoidal flux must be produced

by the magnetizing current. When the amplitude of the voltage (or flux) is large enough to
enter the nonlinear region of the B-H curve, the magnetizing current needed will be
greatly distorted from sinusoidal, and contain harmonics.
V(t)
(t)

H = NI

17

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Before converter loads were widely used, one of the principal harmonic sources in the
power system was the excitation current of power transformers. Although modern
transformers do not generate significant harmonics under normal steady state operating
condition but can considerably increase their harmonic contribution under abnormal
conditions when their magnetic cores are saturated.
The proportion of harmonic current to fundamental is determined by the degree of
saturation at which the core is operated.
The non-sinusoidal magnetising current can be resolved into a fundamental and a series of
odd harmonics, of which the 3rd is the most important. The negative half-cycle is identical
with the positive half-cycle so no even harmonics appear.
Typical proportions of the harmonic current are:
Fundamental 100%, 3rd harmonic = 40%, 5th harmonic = 15%, 7th harmonic = 8%.
The current can be resolved using Fourier analysis into
i
=
i1 + i3 + ..
The current i1 is sinusoidal with a frequency equal to that of the source. The current
i3 is a third-harmonic current with a frequency that is three times the source frequency.
im(t) =
Harmonic Problems.
The number of non-linear loads which draw non-sinusoidal currents even if fed with
sinusoidal voltage - connected to the power supply system is large and is continuing to
grow rapidly. These currents can be defined in terms of a fundamental component and
harmonic components of higher order.
In power transformers the main consequence of harmonic currents is an increase in losses,
mainly in windings, because of the deformation of the leakage fields. Higher losses mean
that more heat is generated in the transformer so that the operating temperature increases,
leading to deterioration of the insulation and a potential reduction in lifetime.
As a result, it is necessary to reduce the maximum power load on the transformer, a
practice referred to as de-rating, or to take extra care in the design of the transformer to
18

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

reduce these losses. To estimate the de-rating of the transformer, the loads K-factor may
be used. This factor is calculated according to the harmonic spectrum of the load current
and is an indication of the additional eddy current
load losses. It reflects the excess losses experienced in a traditional wire wound
transformer.
</p><p>Modern transformers use alternative winding designs such as foil windings or
mixed wire/foil windings. For these transformers, the standardised K-factor derived for
the load current - does not reflect the additional load losses and the actual increase in
losses proves to be very dependent on the construction method. It is therefore necessary to
minimise the additional losses at the design stage of the transformer for the given load
data using field simulation methods or measuring techniques
3 Rating for Harmonic loads
Any transformer supplying a power electronic drive , UPS or such equipment will be
subjected to non-sinusoidal waveforms. This increases the temperature rise of both core
and windings necessitating a derating. The need for derating depends very much on the
underlying Standard to which the transformer is being manufactured.
Delta Connection.
If the transformer has a delta (primary or secondary) the phase voltages are
constrained to be a balanced fundamental set. Any third harmonic voltage would
appear as a result acting around the delta, which is therefore a short-circuit to the 3rd
harmonic and can circulate third harmonic magnetising current. The primary lines then
supply the fundamental magnetising current and the delta supplies the third harmonic. 3rd
harmonic currents do not appear in the lines.

Star connection
Star with neutral connection
Voltages are sinusoidal and third harmonic currents flow. Each line carries fundamental
and 3rd harmonic magnetising current. The fundamental neutral current is zero, but the
neutral will carry the 3rd harmonic currents from all three windings.
Transformer with star

19

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

I1+I3

3I3

I1+I3
I1+I3

Star without neutral

A star without a neutral connection has no path for third harmonic currents. ( Harmonic
currents flow in the same direction in all three phases). Currents are therefore sinusoidal,
however each phase voltage has a 3rd harmonic voltage, but line-to-line voltage must
remain sinusoidal. The star point of the transformer therefore has a 3rd harmonic voltage
to neutral.
Phasor diagrams..
A voltmeter between the transformer star-point and the system neutral will measure
harmonic voltage V3 (rms). A voltmeter between lines will measure fundamental only.
VLL

3 V1 ph.

A voltmeter across a phase winding will measure the resultant phase voltages,
fundamental and plus 3rd harmonic.
Vph.rms =

(V12 + V32 )

e.g. if VLL = 400 V and Vph. = 250 V,

V1 ph. = 400/3

230 V

=
(2502 - 2302 )
=
98 V
a voltmeter between the neutral and the star point, will read 98 V (at the third harmonic
frequency).
Star-star transformers are usually fitted with tertiary wind connected in closed delta. The
delta will carry the third harmonic magnetising current. If the star-star has no neutral the
delta will suppress the star point cycling. If there is a neutral, the delta will suppress the
third harmonic current which the neutrals would otherwise carry, since the delta path is
usually a lower impedance than the neutral path.
V3

20

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Y-
. The secondary voltage is shifted 30 relative to the primary voltage.

Vca

Vbc

a HV
30

HV

Van LV

Vab

LV

Because of the phase shift. transformers can not be connected in parallel

unless they have proper phase sequence. (ie. They are in phase with each
other).
Y Y parallel Y- ? NO
Y- parallel Y- ? Yes. However, you must identify the correct phase
sequence.

Unbalanced Loading.
Unbalanced loading normally occurs when the secondary load is biased to one or two
phases. i.e. there is not equal distribution of the total transformer load one each phase, in
terms of voltage magnitude or phase angle, (120o apart in phase angle). Symmetrical
(sequence) components can be used to analyse this. Unbalanced conditions usually
happen when single phase loads are connected, (common in distribution systems). Any
unbalanced load can be represented (superposition), as a combination of balanced loads
and singlephase loads.
Winding configuration can pose problems. The star-star connection with no primary
neutral and with a load on one phase only can cause particular problems. Other
connections allow ampere-turn balance to be achieved.
I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I

21

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

(a)
Star-star with neutral connection, 1 load

(b)
Star-star without neutral connection, 1 load

2I/3

I/3
2I/3
I/3
I

I/3

(c)
Delta-delta connection, 1 load

I/3

(d)
Star-delta connection, 1 load
I

I
I

(e)
Delta-Star connection, 1 load

(f)
Star-zig-zag connection, 1 load

The problem with star-star and no primary neutral is that there is no way of achieving
m.m.f (ampere-turn) balance in the two unloaded phases.
I

I/2

I/2
Fig.
A load connected to the secondary of phase A draws heavy current, which induces a
corresponding current in the phase A primary. This current must flow through the B and
C primary winding: it has no other path. But there are no secondary B and C currents
(winding open circuited) so all these primary B and C currents act purely as magnetising
22

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

currents, and so cause a substantial change in the B and C primary voltages; i.e. a shift of
the star-point neutral (zero) potential. This shift will be in a direction which reduces the A
phase voltage and consequently the load current (and all currents) but will not be
directly in phase with VA.
Tertiary winding
The solution is to fit a tertiary winding connected in closed delta. This allows a current to
circulate in the delta and give balancing ampere-turns.

2I/3

I/3

I
I/3

I/3

I/3

I/3
Three winding transformer with single-phase load.
Fig.
Neglecting magnetising current and referring all currents to the primary, the behaviour for
each phase can be analysed (assuming that positive currents are considered as into the
star-point):
Phase
A
B
C

Primary
2/3 I
-1/3I
-1/3 I

Secondary
-I
0
0

Tertiary
1/3 I
1/3 I
1/3 I

Total
0
0
0

Griffiths.

The extra winding may be to provide an output at another voltage, or to provide a source
of VARs for power factor improvement or line voltage control. In some cases it might be
to suppress the triplen harmonics for three-wire circuits. The equivalent cct most
frequently used is shown in Fig where the quantities are referred to the primary side
and are per-phase.

R1

V1

Rc

I1 R2

jX2

IT RT

jXT

jX1

V2

jXm
VT

23

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Fig
The magnetising branch is moved to the supply side for simplicity. Three short-cct tests
are required between the pairs of windings to establish the impedance values referred to
the primary side. Consider the previous transformer (Griffiths Parallel) with a tertiary
winding of 128 turns (giving an nominal phase voltage of 8kV). This extra three-phase
winding to be rated at 600kVA with an impedance of (0.2+j1.0) /phase. An overall
representation of the transformer will then be as in Fig. . where all windings are taken as
star connected.
VL=13.86kV
ZT= (0.2+j1.0)
phase
Z1=(0.03+j0.092)
/phase

N
Z2 = (0.44+j1.34)
phase

VL=7.8kV

VL=27.7kV

Tertiary

N
4,500kVA

Primary

Secondary
y

Fig.
Do qs (Griffiths

VL
N

N
VL
Primary

Secondary
y

Vb

Vb

Va

Va

Vc

Vc

24

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
Regulation is a subject that regularly occurs in power systems. Regulation is a measure of
the voltage drop in a device or circuit. It compares the volt-drop at full-load with the
terminal voltage at no-load, both of which can be obtained for a transformer from simple
factory tests.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the terminal voltage Vs between
no-load and full-load at a given power factor. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the
rated voltage.
The voltage regulation can be described as the change in magnitude of the secondary
voltage as the load current changes from no-load to the loaded condition.

Voltage Regulation =

V2

NL

V2

V2

The voltages in eqn above can be calculated by using equivalent circuit parms referred to
the primary, or secondary. The phasor diagram for the single-phase transformer or one
phase of three-phase transformer is Figure . Consider the equivalent cct referred to the
primary
Voltage Regulation =

V2

NL

V2

V2

Load voltage normally taken as rated voltage.

I1 Req
V1

jXeq

I2/a = I2`
aV2=V2`

From fig above

V1 = V2`+I2`Req1 Req1 + jI2`Xeq1
If the load is thrown off (I1 = I2` = 0), V1 = V2`.
Hence
|V2`|NL = |V1|
From above eqns

25

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

V1 V2
Voltage regulation (%) =

V2

.100%

The voltage regulation depends on the power factor of the load. This can be appreciated
from the phasor diagram of the voltages:

V1
I2`Zeq1
V2`

I2`Xeq1
2+
eq1

I2`Req1

I2`

Fig. 2

The locus of V1 will be maximum if the phasor I2`Zeq1 is in phase with V2`. That is,
2 + eq1 = 0
Where 2 is the angle of the load impedance
eq1 is the angle of the transformer equivalent impedance, Zeq1.
Therefore 2 = - eq1
Therefore the maximum voltage regulation occurs if the power factor angle of the load is
equal to the transformer equivalent impedance angle and the load power factor is lagging.
In most power transformers Req is much smaller than Xeq and so Req can be ignored in
regulation and fault level calculations.

V1
I2`Xeq1

90o-
2

V2`

2
I2`

Parallel Operation of Transformers

Two or more three-phase transformers, or two or more banks made up of three singlephase units, can be connected in parallel for additional capacity.
Paralleling of transformers is required to (a) to avoid overheating, (b) to operate at an
optimum energy efficiency and (c) to alter the VAR flow along transmission lines.

26

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

In addition to requirements listed above for single-phase transformers, phase angular

displacements (phase rotation) between high and low voltages must be the same for both.
Parallel Operation Of Single-phase Transformers
(Griffiths)

I1 R1
1

E1

I2
E2

I1 = I

Z2
Z1 + Z 2

I2 = I

Z1
Z1 + Z 2

jX1
Load

R2

jX2

I1 Z 2
=
I 2 Z1

VA1 = VI1

VI1 = VI

Z2
Z1 + Z 2

= total load VA
Also

VA2 = total load VA

Z2
Z1 + Z 2

Z1
Z1 + Z 2

The latter two eqns must be multiplied by 3 for three-phase transformers.

Now
Z1 = R1 + jX1 is the transformer 1 total impedance referred to the secondary,
Z2 = R2 + jX2 is the transformer 2 total impedance referred to the sebcondary,
And Z = R + jX is the effective load impedance.
See qns ..

27

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Z1
I1
E1

Z2
I2

E2

Equivalent Circuit
The following conditions must exist for transformers to operate satisfactorily in parallel:
1. Connection diagrams must be identical. Paralleling transformers with different
connection diagrams is similar to short circuiting their secondary windings.
2. Voltage ratios must be the same. If voltage ratios are not the same, circulating
currents will flow in the secondaries with no or little load, and the division of load
will be improper.
3. Percent impedance, including primary and secondary leads to each transformer,
should be nearly equal. If the impedance's are equal and the turns ratios are
identical, the paralleled transformers will divide the load currents (properly) in
proportion to their kVA ratings. If the percent impedance's are different, the
transformer with the lower percent impedance will take more than its proper share
of the load.
4. The ratio of R to X must be the same for both transformers.
5. For three-phase transformers the ephase sequence and phase shifts must be the
same.
The conditions are an ideal scenario and unlikely to be achieved in practice, so he
maximum total output is usually less than the sum of the individual outputs. Briefly,
condition (2) ensures that there are no circulating currents, condition (3) ensures that
equality of voltage is observed at all times, and condition (4) maintains the same
power factor for each transformer.
It is convenient to use an equivalent cct referred to the secondary side for calculations
on load division between transformers.
The mag. current is ignored without detriment since it only affects the primary and
will not result in any circulating currents.
I1 = (E1 -V)/Z1,

I2 = (E2 -V)/Z2,

I1 = I1 + I2
V/Z = (E1 -V)/Z1 + (E2 -V)/Z2
V{1/Z + 1/Z1 + 1/Z2] = E1/Z1 + E2/Z2

28

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

Therefore V = [E1/Z1 + E2/Z2]/[1/Z + 1/Z1 +1/Z2]

Current:
I1 = (E1 -V)/Z1,

I2 = (E2 -V)/Z2,

I = I1 + I2
I1 = I - I2
I1 = V/Z - (E2 -V)/Z2
V = Z(V1 -V)/Z1

V/Z = (E1 -V)/Z1 + (E2 -V)/Z2

V{1/Z + 1/Z1 + 1/Z2] = E1/Z1 + E2/Z2
Therefore V = [E1/Z1 + E2/Z2]/[1/Z + 1/Z1 +1/Z2]

I1 =

V1Z 2 + (V1 V2 ) Z
Z1 Z 2 + Z ( Z1 + Z 2 )

Unequal Voltage Ratios

The calculations are longer if the voltage ratios of two transformers do not match. The
problem of supplying a common load is more limited since unequal voltage ratios cause
circulating currents that create heating with no useful output. For the circuit in Fig below
where E1 and E2 are unequal, then by consideration of Kirchhoffs laws:
jX1

I1 R1
1

E1

I2
E2

Load Z

jX2

R2

E1 = I1 Z1 + (I1 + I2)Z
E2 = I2 Z2 + (I1 + I2)Z

29

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

I1 =

E1 Z 2 + ( E1 E 2 ) Z
Z1 Z 2 + Z (Z1 + Z 2 )

I2 =

E 2 Z 1 + ( E 2 E1 ) Z
Z1 Z 2 + Z ( Z1 + Z 2 )

And the circulating current on no load when I = 0 is

I1 =

E1 E 2
Z1 + Z 2

and I1 = -I2

Here actual values of impedance must be used since ratios are not involved, unless all
quantities are reduced to a common base.
Tertiary winding
The solution is to fit a tertiary winding connected in closed delta. This allows a current to
circulate in the delta and give balancing ampere-turns.

2I/3

I/3

I
I/3

I/3

I/3

I/3
Three winding transformer with single-phase load.
Fig.
Neglecting magnetising current and referring all currents to the primary, the behaviour for
each phase can be analysed (assuming that positive currents are considered as into the
star-point):
Phase
A
B
C

Primary
2/3 I
-1/3I
-1/3 I

Secondary
-I
0
0

Tertiary
1/3 I
1/3 I
1/3 I

Total
0
0
0

Griffiths.
The extra winding may be to provide an output at another voltage, or to provide a source
of VARs for power factor improvement or line voltage control. In some cases it might be
to suppress the triplen harmonics for three-wire circuits. The equivalent cct most

30

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

frequently used is shown in Fig where the quantities are referred to the primary side
and are per-phase.
R1

V1

I1 R2

jX2

IT RT

jXT

jX1

V2

jXm

Rc

VT

Fig
The magnetising branch is moved to the supply side for simplicity. Three short-cct tests
are required between the pairs of windings to establish the impedance values referred to
the primary side.
There are two turns ratios V1:V2 and V1:V3. It is necessary to refer all impedances to
primary values, then the transformer can be represented by a simple circuit and all
required values found as with the simple 2-winding transformer. Note that with the 2winding transformer it is not possible to separate primary and secondary leakage
reactance and these are usually considered to be equal. However the primary, secondary
and tertiary equivalent impedances of a 2-winding transformer can be found from short
circuit tests.
Short Circuit Tests (neglecting resistances)
S
XPS
X2
X1

XST
ZS
X3
XPT

T
ZT

Three s/c tests have to performed in order to cal. The three unknowns, X1, X21 and X31
Supply

O/C

S/C

Result

Test 1

XPT = VP/IT

Test 2

XPS = VP/IS

Test 3

XST = VS/IT

31

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

From test (1) - XPT = X1+ X3

From test (2) - XPS = X1+ X2
From test (3) - XST = X21+ X3
Now (1) + (2) (3)
2 .X1 = XPT + XPS - XST
X1 = [XPT + XPS - XST]
(1) + (3) (2)
2 .X3 = XPT + XST - XPS
X3 = [XPT + XST - XPS]
(2) + (3) (1)
2 .X2 = XPS + XST - XPT
X2 = [XPS + XST - XPT]
X1 =XP = [XPT + XPS - XST] = [0.16 + 0.1 0.08] = 0.09pu
X2 =XS = [XPS + XST - XPT]
= [0.1 + 0.08 0.16] = 0.01 pu
X3 =XT = [XPT + XST - XPS] = [0.16 + 0.08 0.1] = 0.07 pu
S
j0.1
X21
X1

j0.08
ZS
X31
j0.16

T
ZT

Ex.
Obtain the equivalent circuit in pu of a 3 ph., 3 winding transformer rated: 20MVA,
132kV/30MVA, 33kV/10MVA, 6.6kV.
Chose a 30MVA base
The following are the s/c test results:
(i)
HV to T rated current is 87.5A and requires 7.92kv (line) to inject.
(ii)
HV to LV rated current, 87.5A and requires 13.2 kV (line) to inject.
(iii) T to LV rated current, 525A requires 2.64 kV kV Line to inject.
Soln,
(i) XP + XT = 7.92kV/3/87.5 = 52.3
1.0 pu in

= 132kV/30 MVA = 581

XP + XT = 52.3/581 = 0.09pu

(ii)

XP + XS = 13.2kV/3/87.5 = 87.1
1.0 pu in

= 132kV/30 MVA = 581

32

DT021/4 Power System Analysis Dr. J Kearney

XP + XS = 87.1/581 = 0.15pu
(or XP + XS = 0.09 . 13.2kV/7.92kV = 0.15 pu )
(iii)

XT + XS = 2.64kV/3/525 = 2.9

1.0 pu in

XP
XT
XS

= 332kV/30 MVA = 36.3

XT + XS = 2.9/36.3 = 0.08pu
=
(x1 +x2 - x3 )
=
(0.09 +0.15 -0.08) = 0.08 pu
=
(x1 +x3 - x2 )
=
(0.09 +0.08 -0.15) = 0.01 pu
=
(x2 +x3 - x1 )
=
(0.15 +0.08 -0.09) = 0.07 pu

33