Chapter 4.

Transformer

Transformer- Introduction
   

   

Two winding transformers Construction and principles Equivalent circuit Determination of equivalent circuit parameters Voltage regulation Efficiency Auto transformer 3 phase transformer
2

Transformer- Introduction

Varieties of transformers
3

Transformer- Introduction

Transformer- Introduction


Transformer is a device that makes use of the magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy It is typically consists of one primary winding coil and one or more secondary windings The primary winding and its circuit is called the Primary Side of the transformer The secondary winding and its circuit is called the Secondary Side of the transformer
5

Transformer- Introduction


If one of those winding, the primary, is connected to an alternating voltage source, an alternating flux will be produced. The mutual flux will link the other winding, the secondary, and will induced a voltage in it.

Transformer- Introduction


Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be classified in many ways:


  

Power level (from fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA), Application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation), Frequency range (power, audio, radio frequency (RF)) Voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts) Cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.) Purpose (distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.).

Transformer- Introduction


Power transmission

Transformer- Introduction


Power transmission

Transformer

4.1 Construction

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Transformer- construction

Basic components of single phase transformer

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Transformer- construction

A)

re ty e

B ) S ell ty e

Single phase transformer construction

12

Transformer- construction

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Transformer- construction
Primar Winding

Multi-la er Laminated Iron Core X1 X2

econdar Winding

H1 H2

Winding Terminals

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Transformer

4.2 Ideal Transformer

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Transformer
The emf which induced in transformer primary winding is known as self induction emf as the emf is induced due to to flux which produced by the winding itself. While the emf which induced in transformer secondary winding is known as mutual induction emf as the emf is induced due to to flux which produced by the other winding.
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i v1 e1 e2 v2

Transformer
Acording to Faraday s Law, the emf which induced in the primary winding is,

i v1 e1 e2 v2

dJ e1 = N1 dt
Since the flux is an alternating flux,

mak

sin [ t

e1 = N1
!

d (J

ak

sin [ t ) dt
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1 mak

[ cos [ t

Transformer
e1 !
1 mak

2Tf cos [ t

i v1 e1 e2 v2

! E1max cos [ t
where,

E1 max = N1J max 2Tf

E1 rms ! E1 max 2
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! 4.44 1J max f

Transformer
e2 = N 2
dJ dt

i v1 e1 e2 v2

Similarly it can be shown that,

E2 rms
E2 E1

4.44 N 2J max f

4.44 2Jmax f 4.44 1Jmax f

2 1

k is transformation ratio
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Transformer
The voltage ratio of induced voltages on the secondary to primary windings is equal to the turn ratio of the winding turn number of the secondary winding to the winding turn number of the primary winding. Therefore the transformers can be used to step up or step down voltage levels by choosing appropriate number their winding turns. In power system it s necessary to step up the output voltage of a generator which less than 30kV to up 500kV for long distance transmission. High voltage for long distance power transmission can reduce current flow in the transmission lines, thus line losses and voltage drop can be reduced.

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer

 

Winding resistances are zero, no leakage inductance and iron loss Magnetization current generates a flux that induces voltage in both windings

E1 !
!

N1 * m [ 2
2

*m [ 2

Current, voltages and flux in an unloaded ideal transformer

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Transformer
i v1 e1 e2 v2

Transformer on no load.

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Loaded transformer
i

I2

V1

E1 N1 N2

E2

V2 ZL

When a load is connected to the secondary output terminals of a transformer as shown in Figure 4.5, a current I2 flows into the load and into transformer secondary winding N2. The current I2 which flowing in N2 produces flux 2 which opposite by Lenz s law- to the main magnetic flux in the transformer core. This will weaken or slightly reduce the main flux to .
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Loaded transformer
i

I2

V1

E1 N1 N2

E2

V2 ZL

The reduction of main flux by Faraday s law- could also reduce the induced voltage in primary winding E1. Consequently E1 is now smaller than the supply voltage V1, then the primary current would be increased due to that potential differences. Therefore on loaded transformer, the primary current has an additional current of I1 .
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Loaded transformer
i

I2

V1

E1 N1 N2

E2

V2 ZL

The extra current I1 which flowing in the primary winding N1 produces flux 1 which naturally react according to Lenz s law, demagnetize the flux 2. Therefore the net magnetic flux in the core is always maintained at original value, it is the main flux (the flux which produced by the magnetizing current).
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Loaded transformer
i

I2

V1

E1 N1 N2

E2

V2 ZL

The magneto motive force (mmf) source N2I2 at the secondary winding produces flux 2, while the mmf N1I1 produces flux 1. Since the magnitude of 1 equal to magnitude of 2 and the reluctance seen by these two mmf sources are equal, thus N1I1 = N2I2
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Loaded transformer

Currents and fluxes in a loaded ideal transformer

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Turn ratio


If the primary winding has N1 turns and secondary winding has N2 turns, then:

N1 E1 I2 a! ! ! N2 E2 I1


The input and output complex powers are equal

E1 I ! S1 ! S 2 ! E 2 I

* 1

* 2
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Functional description of a transformer:

When a = 1 When | a | < 1 Isolation Transformer Step-Up Transformer Voltage is increased from Primary side to secondary side Step-Down Transformer Voltage is decreased from Primary side to secondary side

When | a | > 1

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Transformer Rating


Practical transformers are usually rated based on:  Voltage Ratio (V1/V2) which gives us the turns-ratio  Power Rating, small transformers are given in Watts (real power) and Larger ones (Power Transformers) are given in kVA (apparent power)
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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Example 4.1


Determine the turns-ratio of a 5 kVA 2400V/120V Power Transformer Turns-Ratio = a = V1/V2 = 2400/120 = 20/1 = 20 This means it is a Step-Down transformer

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Example 4.2
A 480/2400 V (r.m.s) step-up ideal transformer delivers 50 kW to a resistive load. Calculate: (a) the turns ratio, (0.2) (b) the primary current, (104.17A) (c) the secondary current. (20.83A)

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Nameplate of transformer

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer



Transferring impedances through a transformer

V1 a V2 2 V2 Z1 ! ! !a I1 I 2 I2 a

! a2 1

load

Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer

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Transformer- Ideal Transformer

Equivalent circuit when secondary impedance is transferred to primary side and ideal transformer eliminated
a)

b) Equivalent circuit when primary source is transferred to secondary side and ideal transformer eliminated

Thvenin equivalents of transformer circuit

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Transformer- practical transformer



Practical Transformer

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Transformer

4.3 Equivalent Circuits

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Transformer- equivalent circuit

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Transformer- equivalent circuit

Development of the transformer equivalent circuits
The effects of winding resistance and leakage flux are respectively accounted for by resistance R and leakage reactance X (2 fL).

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Transformer- practical equivalent circuit



In a practical magnetic core having finite permeability, a magnetizing current Im is required to establish a flux in the core. This effect can be represented by a magnetizing inductance Lm. The core loss can be represented by a resistance Rc.

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Transformer- practical equivalent circuit

Rc :core loss component, Xm : magnetization component, R1 and X1 are resistance and reactance of the primary winding R2 and X2 are resistance and reactance of the secondary winding
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Transformer- practical equivalent circuit



The impedances of secondary side such as R2, X2 and Z2 can be moved to primary side and also the impedances of primary side can be moved to the secondary side, base on the principle of: The power before transferred = The power after transferred.
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Transformer- practical equivalent circuit

The power before transferred = The power after transferred. I22R2 = I1 2R2 Therefore R2 = (I2/ I1 ) 2 R2 = a2R2
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Transformer- practical equivalent circuit

The turns can be moved to the right or left by referring all quantities to the primary or secondary side.

The equivalent circuit with secondary side moved to the primary.

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Transformer- Approximate
circuit


equivalent

For convenience, the turns is usually not shown and the equivalent circuit is drawn with all quantities (voltages, currents, and impedances) referred to one side.

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Transformer- equivalent circuit



Example 4.3
A 100kVA transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 80 turns on the secondary. The primary and secondary resistance are 0.3 ohm and 0.01 ohm respectively and the corresponding leakage reactances are 1.1 ohm and 0.035 ohm respectively. The supply voltage is 2200V. Calculate: (a) the equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit (2.05 ohm) (b) the equivalent impedance referred to the secondary circuit
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Transformer

4.4 Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameter

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Transformer- o/c-s/c tests



The equivalent circuit model for the actual transformer can be used to predict the behavior of the transformer. The parameters R1, X1, Rc, Xm, R2, X2 and N1/N2 must be known so that the equivalent circuit model can be used. These parameters can be directly and more easily determined by performing tests: 1. No-load test (or open-circuit test). 2. Short-circuit test.
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Transformer- o/c-s/c tests



No load/Open circuit test  Provides magnetizing reactance (Xm) and core loss resistance (RC)  Obtain components are connected in parallel Short circuit test  Provides combined leakage reactance and winding resistance  Obtain components are connected in series

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Transformer- open circuit test



No load/Open circuit test

Equivalent circuit for open circuit test, measurement at the primary side.

Simplified equivalent circuit

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Transformer- open circuit test



Open circuit test evaluation

Poc U 0 ! cos V I oc oc 2 Voc Rc ! Poc
1

Q ! Voc I oc sin U 0
2 Voc Xm ! Q

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Transformer- short circuit test



Short circuit test



Secondary (normally the LV winding) is shorted, that means there is no voltage across secondary terminals; but a large current flows in the secondary. Test is done at reduced voltage (about 5% of rated voltage) with full-load current in the secondary. So, the ammeter reads the full-load current; the wattmeter reads the winding losses, and the voltmeter reads the applied primary voltage.
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Transformer- short circuit test



Short circuit test

Equivalent circuit for short circuit test, measurement at the primary side

Simplified equivalent circuit for short circuit test

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Transformer- short circuit test



Short circuit test

Simplified circuit for calculation of series impedance

Re 1 ! R1  a R2
2

X e1 ! X 1  a X 2
2

Primary and secondary impedances are combined

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Transformer- short circuit test



Short circuit test evaluation

Psc Re 1 ! 2 I sc X e1 ! Z R
2 e1 2 e1

Z e1

V sc ! I sc

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Transformer- o/c-s/c tests



Equivalent circuit obtained by measurement

Equivalent circuit for a real transformer resulting from the open and short circuit tests.
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Transformer- o/c-s/c tests



Example 4.4
Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200/400V, 50Hz 1-phase transformer from the following test data:O/C test : 200V, 0.7A, 70W S/C test : 15V, 10A, 85W - on L.V. side - on H.V. side

(Rc =571.4 ohm, Xm=330 ohm, Re=0.21ohm, Xe=0.31 ohm)

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Transformer


voltage regulation

Voltage Regulation


Most loads connected to the secondary of a transformer are designed to operate at essentially constant voltage. However, as the current is drawn through the transformer, the load terminal voltage changes because of voltage drop in the internal impedance. To reduce the magnitude of the voltage change, the transformer should be designed for a low value of the internal impedance Zeq The voltage regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of the secondary voltage as the load current changes from the no-load to the loaded condition.
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Transformer
I2 R1 X1

voltage regulation
Ze2 R2 X2 I2

V12=V20

Rc

Xm

V2

Ze2 = R1 + R2 + jX1 + jX2 = Re2 + jXe2

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Transformer
I2 R1 X1

voltage regulation
Ze2 R2 X2 I2

V12=V20

Rc

Xm

V2

Applying KVL,

V20 = I2 (Ze2 ) + V2 = I2 (Re2 + jXe2 ) + V2

Or

V2 = V20 - I2 (Ze2 )
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Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

O
2

A V2

I2Re2 I2

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Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

V20 I2Xe2 O
2

A V2 I2Re2 B I2

I2Re2

V20 = I2 (Ze2 ) + V2 = I2 (Re2 + jXe2 ) + V2

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Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

Voltage drop = AM = OM

OA
64

= AD + DN + NM

Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

AD = I2 Re2 cos

2 2
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DN=BL= I2 Xe2 sin

Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

Applying Phytogrus theorem to OCN triangle. (NC)2 = (OC)2 (ON)2 2(OC)(NM)

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= (OC + ON)(OC - ON)

Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

Therefore NM = (NC)2/2(OC) NC = LC LN = LC
2

BD
2
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= I2 Xe2 cos

- I2 Re2 sin

Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

I 2 X e 2 cos U 2  I 2 Re 2 sin U 2 2 NM =
2V20

AM = AD + DN + NM = I2 Recos 2 + I2 Xe2 sin

I 2 X e 2 cos U 2  I 2 Re 2 sin U 2 2
2V20
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Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

thus, votage regulation = (AM)/V20 per unit In actual practice the term NM is negligible since its value is very small compared with V2. Thus the votage regulation formula can be reduced to:

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Transformer
I2Xe2

voltage regulation

C V20 I2Xe2
2

O
2

A V2 I2Re2

I2Re2 I2

B
2

Voltage regulation =

I 2 Re2 cosU 2 s I 2 X e 2 sin U 2

V20
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Transformer- voltage regulation



The voltage regulation is expressed as follows:

Voltage regulation

V 2 NL  V 2 L V 2 NL

V2 L= secondar voltage (no-load condition)

V2L = secondar voltage (full-load condition)

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Transformer- voltage regulation



For the equivalent circuit referred to the primary:

V1  V 2' Voltage regulation ! V1

V1 = no-load voltage
V2 = secondar voltage referred to the primar (full-load condition)

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Transformer- voltage regulation



Consider the equivalent circuit referred to the secondary,

Xe2 Re2

Voltage regulation !

I2

e2

cos U 2 s I 2 X e 2 sin U 2 V2 NL
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(-) : power factor leading (+) : power factor lagging

Transformer- voltage regulation



Consider the equivalent circuit referred to the primary,

Xe1 Re1

Voltage regulation !

I1

e1

cos U 2 s I 1 X e 1 sin U 2 V1

(-) : power factor leading (+) : power factor lagging

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Transformer- voltage regulation



Example 4.5 Based on Example 4.3 calculate the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage for full load having a power factor of (i) 0.8 lagging (0.0336pu,14.8V) (ii) 0.8 leading (-0.0154pu,447V)
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Transformer- Efficiency


Losses in a transformer  Copper losses in primary and secondary windings  Core losses due to hysteresis and eddy current. It depends on maximum value of flux density, supply frequency and core dimension. It is assumed to be constant for all loads

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Transformer- Efficiency


As always, efficiency is defined as power output to power input ratio output power ( P out ) L ! input power ( P in )

P out ! P out  losses The losses in the transformer are the core loss (Pc) and copper loss (Pcu).

V2 I 2 cosU2 L! 2 V2 I 2 cosU2  Pc  I 2

e2
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Transformer- Efficiency


Efficiency on full load

S FL cos U FL L! S FL cos U FL  Poc  Psc

where S is the apparent power (in volt amperes)

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Transformer- Efficiency


Efficiency for any load equal to n x full load

n v S FL cosU FL L! 2 n v SFL cosU FL  Poc  n v Psc

where corresponding total loss =

P n v P oc sc
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Transformer- Efficiency


Example 4.6
The following results were obtained on a 50 kVA transformer: open circuit test primary voltage, 3300 V; secondary voltage, 400 V; primary power, 430W.Short circuit test primary voltage, 124V;primary current, 15.3 A; primary power, 525W; secondary current, full load value. Calculate the efficiency at full load and half load for 0.7 power factor. (97.3%, 96.9%)
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Transformer- Efficiency


For constant values of the terminal voltage V2 and load power factor angle 2 , the maximum efficiency occurs when

dL !0 dI 2


If this condition is applied, the condition for maximum efficiency is 2 c 2 e2

P !I

that is, core loss = copper loss.

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Transformer- Efficiency

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Transformer- Auto transformer



It is a transformer whose primary and secondary coils are in a single winding

Autotransformer
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Transformer- Auto transformer



Same operation as two windings transformer Physical connection from primary to secondary Sliding connection allows for variable voltage Higher kVA delivery than two windings connection
84

Transformer- Auto transformer



Advantages:


A tap between primary and secondary sides which may be adjustable to provide step-up/down capability Able to transfer larger S apparent power than the two winding transformer Smaller and lighter than an equivalent twowinding transformer Lacks electrical isolation
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Disadvantage:


Transformer- Auto transformer



A Step Down Autotransformer:

and

86

Transformer- Auto transformer



A Step Up Autotransformer:
and

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Transformer- Auto transformer



Example 4.7 An autotransformer with a 40% tap is supplied by a 400-V, 60-Hz source and is used for step-down operation. A 5-kVA load operating at unity power factor is connected to the secondary terminals. Find: (a) the secondary voltage, (b) the secondary current, (c) the primary current.
88

Transformer- Auto transformer



Solution

89

Transformer -3 phase transformer

Three phase transformers


The three-phase transformer can be built by: the interconnection of three single-phase transformers   using an iron core with three limbs The usual connections for three-phase transformers are:  wye / wye seldom used, unbalance and 3th harmonics problem
 

wye / delta delta / delta delta / wye

frequently used step down.(345 kV/69 kV) used medium voltage (15 kV), one of the transformer can be removed (open delta) step up transformer in a generation station

For most cases the neutral point is grounded

90

Transformer -3 phase transformer



Analyses of the grounded wye / delta transformer

B C


Each leg has a primary and a secondary winding. The voltages and currents are in phase in the windings located on the same leg. The primary phase-toline voltage generates the secondary line-toline voltage. These voltages are in phase
91

VAN Vab

VB N Vbc

VC N Vca

Transformer -3 phase transformer



Analyses of the grounded wye / delta transformer Ia IAN IBN

IB N

IA

Iab Ica Ibc Ic

ICN

IC

Ib

92

Transformer -3 phase transformer



Analyses of the grounded wye / delta transformer

A VBN VAB N B VB C C VCA

VA N VC N

Vbc Vab Vbc Vca Vbc Vab

c b

93

Transformer -3 phase transformer



Three phase transformer

94

Transformer


Three phase transformer

95

Transformer


Three phase transformer

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Transformer


Three phase transformer

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Transformer


Three phase transformer

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Transformer


Three phase transformer

Transformer Construction Iron Core  The iron core is made of thin laminated silicon steel (2-3 % silicon)  Pre-cut insulated sheets are cut or pressed in form and placed on the top of each other .  The sheets are overlap each others to avoid (reduce) air gaps.  The core is pressed together by insulated yokes.

99

Transformer


Three phase transformer

Small transformer winding

Transformer Construction Winding



The winding is made of copper or aluminum conductor, insulated with paper or synthetic insulating material (kevlar, maylard). The windings are manufactured in several layers, and insulation is placed between windings. The primary and secondary windings are placed on top of each others but insulated by several layers of insulating sheets. The windings are dried in vacuum and impregnated to eliminate moisture.

100

Transformer


Three phase transformer

Three phase transformer iron core

Transformer Construction Iron Cores The three phase transformer iron core has three legs.


A phase winding is placed in each leg. The high voltage and low voltage windings are placed on top of each other and insulated by layers or tubes. Larger transformer use layered construction shown in the previous slides.

101

Transformer


Three phase transformer

Three phase oil transformer

Transformer Construction


The dried and treated transformer is placed in a steel tank. The tank is filled, under vacuum, with heated transformer oil. The end of the windings are connected to bushings. The oil is circulated by pumps and forced through the radiators.

102

Transformer


Three phase transformer

Three phase oil transformer

Transformer Construction


The transformer is equipped with cooling radiators which are cooled by forced ventilation. Cooling fans are installed under the radiators. Large bushings connect the windings to the electrical system. The oil is circulated by pumps and forced through the radiators. The oil temperature, pressure are monitored to predict transformer performance.

103

Transformer


Three phase transformer

Dry type transformer

Transformer Construction


Dry type transformers are used at medium and low voltage. The winding is vacuumed and dried before the molding. The winding is insulated by epoxy resin The slide shows a three phase, dry type transformer.
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