EE8409

Electromagnetic Theory
Lecture 2
Dr. Shazzat Hossain
 Time-varying Fields: Faraday’s law
Magnetic field can produce electrical current in a closed loop, but only if the
magnetic flux linking the surface area of the loop changes with time.

The voltage across Galvanometer is Electromotive Force

❑
𝑑𝜆 𝑑Ψ 𝑑 ❑
Ψ =∫ 𝐵. 𝑑 𝑠 𝑉 𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− =− 𝑁 =− 𝑁 ∫ 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑠
Faraday’s Law
 Faraday’s Experimental Setup

Faraday's experiment showing induction

between coils of wire: The liquid
battery (right) provides a current which flows
through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic
field. When the coils are stationary, no
current is induced. But when the small coil is
moved in or out of the large coil (B), the
magnetic flux through the large coil changes,
inducing a current which is detected by the
galvanometer (G).
 Types of EMF
1-A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop: the induced emf is then called the transformer emf,

2-A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the normal component of B) is a static field B; the
induced emf is then called the motional emf,

3-A moving loop in a time-varying field B. The total emf is given by

With if the loop is stationary (case (1)) and if B is static (case (2)). For case (3), neither term is zero.
 Stationary loop
❑
𝜕𝐵
𝑉 =− 𝑁 ∫ .𝑑𝑠
𝑠
𝜕𝑡
Lenz’s law:
The current in the loop is always in such a direction as to oppose the
change of magnetic flux that produced it

Integral Form of second Maxwell Eq. for Time Varying Field

By applying Stokes’s theorem to the left-hand side:

Differential Form of second Maxwell Eq. for Time Varying Field

 Induced EMF
• Transformer EMF (Stationary Loop in Time-varying field)

• Motional EMF (Moving loop in Static field)

• Transformer + Motional EMF (Moving loop in Time-varying field)

Method #1

Method#2
 Displacement Current
• Maxwell’s curl equation for electrostatic field,

• But the divergence of the curl of any vector field identically zero. Hence,

• From the continuity of current equation,

and (2) are incompatible for time-varying conditions. We must modify (1) to agree with (2). To do this,
we add a term to (1) so that it becomes

where is to be determined and defined.

• In order for (3) to agree with (2),

• We get,
Displacement Current
Total displacement current crossing any given surface :

Integral Form of fourth Maxwell Eq. for Time Varying Field

Differential Form of fourth Maxwell Eq. for Time Varying Field

 Maxwell’s Equations in Final Form

Generalized forms of Maxwell’s Equations:

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

Gauss’s Law

Nonexistence of
isolated magnetic
charge
Faraday’s law

Ampere’s circuit
law
 Maxwell’s Equations
• The above equations are not all independent, for example, the divergence
of the curl of E gives the gradient of B. Similarly, the divergence of the curl
of H gives the gradient of D with the help of the continuity of the current
equation.
 Time Domain
Time domain is the analysis of mathematical functions, physical signals, with respect
to time. In the time domain, the signal or function's value is known for all real numbers, for
the case of continuous time, or at various separate instants in the case of discrete time.
An oscilloscope is a tool commonly used to visualize real-world signals in the time domain.
A time-domain graph shows how a signal changes with time.

𝑦 =2 sin(𝜔 𝑡)

𝑎= 𝐴 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 − ∅ ) 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑜 cos ( 𝜔 𝑡 +𝜑 )
 Frequency Domain
• In electrical engineering, the frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical
functions or signals with respect to frequency. 
• A frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within each given frequency band over a
range of frequencies.
• Also include information on the phase shift that must be applied to each sinusoid in order to be able to
recombine the frequency components to recover the original time signal.
• Fourier transform converts a time function into a sum or integral of sine waves of different frequencies, each
of which represents a frequency component.
• The inverse Fourier transform converts the frequency-domain function back to the time function.

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑜 ∡ 𝜑
 Time domain fFrequency domain F
Euler's formula is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that establishes the fundamental
relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function.

𝑦 ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑜 cos ( 𝜔 𝑡 +𝜑 )=𝑅𝑒 [ 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 ]
𝑗 ( 𝜔 𝑡 +𝜑 )

Where =

Where is called the frequency domain form.

Where , is the frequency domain form.

Conversion and Mathematical Operators:
f(t)f(ω)
Let us consider,

Taking derivative

• Example 1: Convert to time domain .

Therefore,

• Example 2: Convert to time domain .

Similarly,

• or
So,
 Maxwell’s Equations in Frequency Domain
Maxwell’s equations:
; ;

Integral Form
Point form
 Maxwell’s Equations
• To reveal more information from Maxwell’s Equations, we decompose each vector field
into the sum of an irrotational or lamellar part and a rotational (solenoidal) part.
where and
Therefore, the MEs become:

The lamellar part that has zero curl is also called the longitudinal part and the solenoidal or
rotational part that has zero divergence is called the transverse part.
 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
• The relationship between and and that between and are required for solving the field equations.
• In free-space or vacuum, and
the magnetic permeability and the electric permittivity F/m.
In general, for material bodies, and where and are tensors of rank 2, or dyadic.
For example,
The x-component of is
In practice for many materials and reduce to simple scalar quantities and furthermore, are essentially
independent of the field strength. (For linear homogeneous isotropic mediums)

And

is seen to be a solenoidal field also.

When and varies with position, we have

The physical meaning of the above equations require to investigate the properties of a matter.
 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
An external field applied to a dielectric material results in a dipole polarization per unit
volume (even though some materials have permanent dipole polarization without an
external field). The application of an external field tends to align the dipoles with the field,
resulting in a decrease in the electric field intensity in the material. The displacement flux
vector

where is the electric susceptibility. The dielectric strength .

The formula holds for the materials that have high degree of symmetry in their crystal
structure. Generally, is a dyadic quantity and where is the unit dyadic.
Similarly, for magnetic case,

Again is not always in the direction of hence and are dyadic quantities in general.
 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
• Materials for which and are scalar constants are referred to as
homogeneous isotropic materials. When and vary with position, the
material is no longer homogeneous but is still isotropic. When and are
dyadics, the material is said to be anisotropic. In the latter case the material
may again be homogeneous or nonhomogeneous, depending on whether or
not and vary with position.
In material bodies with and scalar functions of position, Maxwell’s curl
equations may be written as
 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
The term may be regarded as an equivalent polarization current and is considered
as the equivalent of a magnetic polarization current
Introducing the polarization vectors and to the divergence equations gives

The terms and interpreted as an electric-polarization charge density and a

magnetic-polarization charge density (a mathematical term only), respectively.
 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
At high frequencies, the inertia of the atomic system causes the polarization vectors and
to lag behind the applied fields. As a result, and must be represented by complex
quantities as:

For many materials the conduction current

Where is known as the medium conductivity. For linear medium,

 Field Intensity Vector and Flux Density
Vector
The effective permittivity is now complex, even if is zero, and is given by

Where is called the loss tangent of the material.

If a material body has an appreciable conductivity, the density of free charge in the interior
may be taken as zero. From the continuity of current equation,
and
For homogenous medium,

For metals the decay time is of the order of seconds.

The above result means that in conducting bodies If the medium is homogeneous the
divergence of and will also be zero.
 Electromagnetic Energy and Power Flow
The time-average amount of energy stored in the electric field that exists in a volume V is given by

The time-average energy stored in the magnetic field is

The asterisk (*) signifies the complex conjugate value and the additional arises because of the averaging
over one period. The imaginary parts of the above equations are the power loss components.
The time-average complex power flow across a surface is given by the integral of the complex Poynting
vector over that surface,

The real power is given by the real part of P while the imaginary part represents energy stored in the
electric and magnetic fields.
 Electromagnetic Energy and Power Flow

The unit normal vector on the surface is directed into the volume.
Now
Using Maxwell’s equations

The power loss is the sum of the conduction loss and times the imaginary parts of the power loss components
stated in previous slide.
Consider a simple R-L-C circuit. The input impedance to this circuit is The complex time-average power flow into the
circuit is given by
R
The time –average reactive energy stored in the magnetic field around the inductor is while the time-average
electric energy stored in the capacitor is , since peak voltage across capacitor is
 Types of Electric Current

Conduction current Convection current Displacement current Impressed current

𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ( 𝑡 )   or   𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑠 (𝜔) 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
( 𝑡 )   or   𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
(𝜔) 𝐼 𝑑 ( 𝑡 )   or   𝐼 𝑑𝑠 (𝜔) 𝐼 𝑖 ( 𝑡 )   or   𝐼 𝑖𝑠 (𝜔)
𝑠
Conduction current Convection current Displacement Impressed current
density density current density density
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝐽 (𝑡) = σ𝐸 or 𝐽 (𝜔 )=𝜎𝐸
𝑠 𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑣
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝐽 (𝑡 ) = 𝜌 𝑈 or 𝐽 ( 𝜔)=𝜌 𝑈
𝑠 𝑣𝑠
 General Maxwell’s Equations
Write the general frequency-domain point form of Maxwell’s equations showing the current densities.
Write the general time-domain point form of Maxwell’s equations showing current densities

Frequency-domain Time-domain
Point Form Point Form
Electrostatic and Magnetostatic Equations
(Excluding Maxwell’s equations)

• Electrostatic Equations

Poisson’s Equation: ?

Laplace’s Equation: ?

?
• Magnetostatic Equations
Mathematical Identities and static field Equations
• Mathematical Identity
Assume a scalar field and a vector field
IDENTITY #1 IDENTITY#2

Maxwell’s Equations
in the Point Form
𝛻 × 𝐸=0
Identity 1 leads to Maxwell's 1st law and also satisfies
Similarly, we can assume

in that case Which leads to Maxwell’s 2nd law if =0

From Maxwell’s 4th equation From Maxwell’s 3rd equation if

And identity #2 And identity #2
We get We get
Magnetostatic Poisson's Equation
Scalar Magnetic Poisson's equation (not
important)

Vector Magnetic Poisson's equation (very

important)
Static Field Equations (point form)
• Electrostatic • Magnetostatic

𝑉 −∇.𝜀∇ 𝜌𝑣 𝐴∇× 1 ∇× 𝐽
∇×
𝜇
−∇ ∇. ∇×
𝐸 𝜀 𝐷 𝐵 1 𝐻
∇× ∇× ∇. 𝜇
−∇
𝐽 𝑒∇ × 1 ∇ × 𝐴𝑒 𝜌𝑚 −∇.𝜇∇ 𝑉𝑚
𝜀
 Solving for the vector magnetic potential
(Method #1)

• Inspect gives the solution for

• Similarly gives the solution for

For the surface current density and the filamentary current, the expressions for the vector
magnetic potential are, respectively, as follows:

❑
𝜇 𝑘 𝑑 𝑠′ ❑
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ′
𝐴=∫ 𝐴=∫
4 𝜋 |𝑟 −𝑟 |
′
𝑠
𝑙 4 𝜋 |𝑟 −𝑟 ′|
Solving for the Vector Magnetic Potential
(Method #2, from magnetic flux density vector)

• We know

𝛻
( 1
𝑟−𝑟
′)=−
′ 2
¿ 𝑟 − 𝑟 ∨¿ 𝑎 𝑟 =−
1
′ 𝑟 −𝑟
′
¿
′ 3
|𝑟 − 𝑟 |