Engineering Physics

L-3
(Electromagnetic Theory)

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY QUANTUM MECHANICS

LASER WAVES

Dr. Mukesh Kumar

SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Lovely Professional University
Phagwara, Punjab-144411
FIBRE OPTICS
EMT-Topics

1. Scalar and Vector fields.

2. Concepts of gradient, divergence and curl.
3. Gauss Theorem and Stokes theorem.
4. Poisson and Laplace’s Equation.
5. Continuity equation.
6. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic equation.
7. Physical significance of Maxwell’s equation.
8. Ampere’s Circuital law.
9. Maxwell displacement current and correction in Amperes law.
Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field and Electric Potential
Coulomb’s Law
F F
The force acting between two charged particles is given by +q1 +q2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 r
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

Electric Field

Electric field is the region over which the effect of a charge can be felt.
If another charge appears in this field, it will be either repelled or r
attracted based on the nature of the charge (i.e. +ve or -ve). Physical +q
expression of the electric field is given by,

𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
If ‘q’ is +ve, then field extends outward from the charge and if it is
negative the field will extend inward into the charge.
Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field and Electric Potential

+q -q
+q

Electric Potential 𝑏=∞

Positive Field Negative Field
An electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit
positive charge from a reference point to a specific point inside the field.
Typically, the reference point is Earth or a point at Infinity, although any
point beyond the influence of the electric field can be used for this a
purpose.

Electric potentials are the line integrals of the electric field over some
region. +q
𝑉 = − 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 and 𝑬 = −𝛁𝑽

The gradient of potential is in the opposite direction to the electric field.

Electric field and potential for a charge distribution
Electric potential due to a point charge at a distance r is given by
𝑞
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
0

For a volume charge distribution with density 𝜌 the electric field is expressed as
𝑞 1 + +
𝐸= = 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 + +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 + + +
Where 𝑞 = Total charge within the volume = 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 + r’ +
+
+ ++
If the charge density is not uniform within the sphere then 𝜌 will be a function + ++ +
+
of the radius of the sphere (r’). Thus 𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑟′). +
+ +
r
Unfortunately, integrals of this type can be difficult to calculate for any but
the simplest charge configurations. Occasionally, we can get around this by
exploiting the symmetry and using Gauss's law, but ordinarily the best
strategy is first to calculate the potential, V, which is given by,
 Electric flux and Gauss’s Law
• Electric flux: It is defined as the number of electric force field lines crossing
a given area in a direction perpendicular to the area. The electric flux
through an elementary area 𝒅𝒂 is given as
• 𝑑∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
• The total flux through any finite area is obtained as
•∅= 𝑑∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
• Gauss’s Law: It states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
equal to the 1/∈0 times the charge enclosed by the surface.
𝑞
•∅= 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑑𝑣 and 𝑞 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
∈𝟎
𝜌
• 𝛻. 𝐸 =
∈𝟎
Poisson and Laplace equations
• We have determined the electric field 𝐸 in a region using Coulomb’s
law or Gauss law when the charge distribution is specified in the
region or using the relation 𝐸 = -𝛻𝑉 when the potential V is specified
throughout the region.
• However, in practical cases, neither the charge distribution nor the
potential distribution is specified only at some boundaries.
• These type of problems are known as electrostatic boundary value
problems.
• For these type of problems, the field and the potential V are
determined by using Poisson’s equation or Laplace’s equation.
• Laplace’s equation is the special case of Poisson’s equation.
• (Derivation from notes)
Poisson and Laplace equations
• For the Linear material Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation can be easily
derived from Gauss’s equation
𝜌 𝜌
• 𝛻. 𝐸 = But 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 therefore 𝛻. −𝛻𝑉 =
∈𝟎 ∈𝟎
𝜌 𝜌
• 𝛻2𝑉 = − 𝛻2𝑉 + =𝟎
∈𝟎 ∈𝟎
• This equation is known as Poisson’s equation which state that the
potential distribution in a region depend on the local charge
distribution.
• In many boundary value problems, the charge distribution is involved
on the surface of the conductor for which the free volume charge
density is zero, i.e., 𝜌 =0. In that case, Poisson’s equation reduces to,
• 𝛻2𝑉 = 0
• This equation is known as Laplace’s equation.
Applications of Poisson and Laplace equations
• Application of Laplace’s and Poisson’s Equation
Using Laplace or Poisson’s equation we can obtain:
• 1. Potential at any point in between two surface when potential at
two surface are given.
• 2. We can also obtain capacitance between these two surface.
Poisson Equation

In such cases it is reasonable to recast the problem into the following form

This equation is known as the Poisson’s equation

Laplace Equation
If in a region the charge density is Q. Obtain an expression for the potential along x-axis
having the conditions that V=4 at x=1 and V=0 at x=5.
zero, then the Poisson’s equation is
modified as

𝛻2𝑉 = 0

This is known as the Laplace

equation.

In 3 Dimension this can be written

as
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
2
+ 2+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Continuity Equation
 A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity.
 Flow of charge per unit time is designated as current (I).
 Again flow or charge per unit time per unit area is known as the flux (Γ).
𝑞
Γ=
𝑡𝐴
Or,
𝐼
Γ=
𝐴
 This above quantity is defined as the current density (J). It is defined as the current per unit area through a
surface.

Equation of Continuity says, in a volume 𝜏, if there is a divergence of the current density (J) (or the flux) within the
volume, then it implies that the charges are flowing out through the volume. Thus, the negative rate of change of
charges in a volume is equal to the divergence of the current density. Mathematically,
𝜕𝜌
𝛻. 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
Or,
𝜕𝜌
𝛻. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
This is known as the equation of continuity.
Continuity Equation: Derivation
If charges are flowing out of a volume V, then the electric current Using Gauss divergence theorem on the LHS we get
is given by
𝑑𝑞 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝛻. 𝐽 𝑑𝜏
𝑖=−
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign appears because charges decreases Thus,
in volume due to outflow. 𝜕𝜌
𝛻. 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑡
Or,
If dq charge is enclosed in a volume element 𝑑𝜏 and is leaving
a surface of area dS then we have, 𝜕𝜌
𝛻. 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝑖= 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
Continuity equation says that total current flowing out of
And some volume must be equal to the rate of decrease of
the charge within that volume (if the charge is neither
𝑞= 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 being created nor being destroyed). The transport of
charge constitutes the current.
Thus, the above equation is written as
𝜕𝜌
𝑑 In case of stationary current = 0 and we have
𝜕𝑡
𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = − 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 𝛻. 𝐽 = 0
𝑑𝑡
That is there is no net outward flux of current density J.
𝜕𝜌
𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = − 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝑡