Electric Field

Electric Charge: Charge is a property of the material due to which it creates electric field in its
surrounding and experience electric force when placed inside electric field.

Charge is of two types +ve charge and –ve charge.

Basic Properties of charge

➢ Same types of charge attract each other and different types of charge repel each other.
➢ Charge is additive in nature: If charge q 1 applies F1 force and charge q2 applies F2 force then
both charge q1 and q2 combine applies force F1 + F2.
➢ Charge is conserved: According to the conservation of charge sum of all charge in this
universe is remains constant. We can’t create or destroy charge.
➢ Charge is quantized: According to the quantization of charge it is not possible to transfer all
continuous value of charge. Charge will transfer from one object to another object in integral
multiple of fixed value called quanta.

Charging by Friction: When two objects rub with each

other some of the electron from one object is transfer to
another object due to that number of proton and
electron inside each object becomes unequal and both
the object becomes charged. This type of charging is
called charging by friction.

Gold Leaf electroscope: Gold leaf electroscope is a device used to measure

charge. It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a box,
with two thin gold leaves attached to its bottom end. When a charge object
touches the metal knob, charge flows on the gold leaves and they diverge.
Amount of charge is measured by the degree of divergence of the leaves.

Conductors and Insulators

➢ Conductors are those substances inside which very large numbers of free electrons are present. It
conducts heat and electricity.
➢ Insulators are those substances inside which very few number or no free electrons are presents.

Charging by induction:
In charging by induction objects are charged by placing the near by it. The surface near to charge it
oppositely charged and the surface far from charge is charged by same type as the external charge.

There are two types of charging by induction

➢ Temporary charging: When we place Q charge metal sphere is charged and when we remove
charge again it is discharged.
➢ Permanent charging:
• First, we place two metal spheres in contact.
• Then we bring charge Q, due to induction sphere gets charged,
and some of the charge from second sphere also comes inside
first sphere.
• Then we separate both sphere and then remove charge Q.

Coulomb’s Law
According to coulomb’s law if two charge separated by r distance applies force on each other is
1. Proportional to multiplication of both charges.

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 𝑭 𝜶 𝑸 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
2. Inversely proportional to square of the distance between them.
𝟏
𝑭 𝜶 𝟐
𝒓
From the above two proportionality
𝟏 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏
𝑭 = = 𝒌 where k =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎

Note:
✓ 𝜀0 is called permittivity of free sace having value in S.I. unit 8.85 X 10-12 C2/N-m2 and k = 9X109Nm2/C2
✓ Dimension of permittivity is [M-1 L-3 T4 A2]

3. Coulomb's law follows Newton’s third law.

Vector form representation of Coulomb’s Law

Electric force on charge 1 due to charge 2 is given as
⃗ 𝟏𝟐 = |𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 𝟏𝟐 | 𝒖
̂ 𝟏𝟐
⃗⃗ 𝟏𝟐
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑹
⃗ 𝟏𝟐 =
𝑭 𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 |𝑹
⃗⃗ 𝟏𝟐 |

where
➢ ⃗𝑭𝟏𝟐 is force on charge 1 due to charge 2.
➢ 𝒖̂ 𝟏𝟐 is unit vector in the direction of vector ⃗𝑹
⃗ 𝟏𝟐
Force between multiple charges (Superposition Principle): If two and more than two charges apply
force on a single charge then net force on the charge will be the sum of force due to all individual
charges this is called super position principle.
Let there are N-1 number of charges applies force on a single charge then,
Net Force on charge 1 is given as

⃗𝟏 = 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 𝟏𝟐 + 𝑭
⃗ 𝟏𝟑 + . . . . . . . .. + 𝑭
⃗ 𝟏(𝑵−𝟏)

Electric Field: Electric field at a point is the force experience by unit positive charge (test charge)
when placed at that point. It is given as
r
𝐹 q E
𝐸⃗ = lim ( 𝑞 )
𝑞→0
Physical meaning of lim is that the charge we have used to measured electric field must be very small
𝑞→0
so that it will not modify the external electric field in that region.

Electric filed at point 1 due to charge at point 2 in vector form given as

𝑸𝟐 ⃗𝑹
⃗ 𝟏𝟐
⃗𝑬𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 |𝑹
⃗⃗ 𝟏𝟐 |

Electric field due to system of charges: If there are two and more than two charges the electric field
at a point due to all the charges is equal to sum of the electric field at that point due to all individual
charges.

⃗𝟏 = 𝑬
𝑬 ⃗ 𝟏𝟐 + 𝑬
⃗ 𝟏𝟑 + . . . . . . . .. + 𝑬
⃗ 𝟏(𝑵−𝟏)

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Electric Field due to continuous charge distribution: For continuous charge distribution electric field
is calculated by dividing the charged object into very small sections and net electric field will be sum
of the electric field due to each charge section.
Since those sections are very small and
continuous that summation can be
done by integration.
For Line charge
𝝆𝒍
E =∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐
For Surface charge
𝝆𝑨
E=∫ 𝒅𝑨
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐
For Volume charge
𝝆𝒗
E =∫ 𝒅𝒗
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐

Electric field lines: Electric field lines are the graphical representation of electric field in any region.
Properties of electric lines of force:
➢ Electric field line always starts from positive charge
and terminates on negative charge.
➢ Electric field at a point is always in the direction
tangential to the electric field line.
➢ Magnitude of electric field at a point is proportional to
density of electric field line that is number of lines per
unit area at that point.
➢ Electric field line of force never breaks.
➢ Two and more than two electric field line never intersect each other because if they intersect
each other, then each electric field line gives the direction of resultant electric field at the
point of intersection in their tangential direction, which is not possible at a time resultant
have more than one direction.

Note:
Electric field lines due to
Positive Point Charge Negative Point Charge Electric Dipole

Electric flux: Electric flux through an area is the amount of electric field crossing through that area.
Electric flux through a differential area is given as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑∅ = 𝑬
Note:
✓ Very small area behaves like a vector and so is a vector quantity having magnitude equal to
the magnitude of area, and direction in the direction perpendicular to the area away from the
closing volume. If does not encloses any volume it is taken in positive direction.
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Electric flux through a large area: It is calculated by dividing that large area into small differential
area and then adding the electric flux through each differential area, and is given as

⃗⃗⃗
φ = ∫ 𝑬⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
Gauss Theorem: According to Gauss Theorem net outward flux through any closed surface is equal to
𝟏
times the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.
𝜺𝒐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∮𝑬 𝜀𝑜
where,
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2

Application of Gauss theorem:

Gauss theorem can be used to find electric field due to symmetric charge distribution.

Gaussian surface: Those closed surface over which at all point electric field is in the direction of area
vector or perpendicular to it and having magnitude constant or zero at all points on that closed
surface is called Gaussian surfaces. Gaussian surface is available only for symmetric charge
distribution.

Gaussian surface due to some standard symmetric charge distribution.

1. Point charge or spherical charge.

Gaussian surface is spherical where
point charge is on the center of
spherical Gaussian surface and point
of observation lies on the Gaussian
surface.

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 2. Infinite uniform line charge or
cylindrical charge.
Gaussian surface is cylindrical where
line charge is the axis of cylindrical
Gaussian surface and point of
observation lies on the lateral surface
of cylindrical Gaussian surface.

3. Infinite uniform sheet charge.

Gaussian surface is cylindrical where
axis of cylinder is perpendicular to the
surface, length of cylinder above and
below the surface are same and point
of observation lies on the top or
bottom surface of cylindrical Gaussian
surface.

Electric field due to a point charge

From Gauss theorem
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∅ = ∮𝑬
𝜀𝑜
Charge inside Gaussian surface is 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄
Q
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
Q
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
Q
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
εo
𝑄
E =
4π𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

Electric field due to uniformly charged hollow sphere

From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑜
Case 1: r > R, i.e point p is outside the sphere
Charge inside Gaussian surface is Qnet = Q
Q
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
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 Q
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
Q
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
εo
𝑄
E =
4π𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

Case 2: r < R, i.e point p is inside sphere

Charge inside Gaussian surface is Qnet = Q

∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 = 0

𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = 0

𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0
E = 0

Electric field due to uniformly charged solid sphere

From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑜

Case 1: r > R, i.e point p is outside sphere

Charge inside Gaussian surface is Qnet = Q
Q
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
Q
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
Q
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
εo
𝑄
E =
4π𝜀𝑜 𝑟2

Case 2: r < R, i.e point p is inside sphere

Volume charge density of sphere
3𝑄
𝜌𝑣 =
4𝜋𝑅 3
Charge inside Gaussian surface is

4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣
3
3𝑄 4𝜋𝑟3
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝜋𝑅3 × 3
𝑄𝑟3
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑅3
𝑄𝑟 3
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀𝑜 𝑅3

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 𝑄𝑟 3
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀𝑜 𝑅3

𝑄𝑟 3
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀𝑜 𝑅3

𝑄𝑟
E =
4π𝜀𝑜 𝑅3

Notes:
✓ Uniformly charged hallow or solid sphere for the point outside sphere behaves as point
charge placed at the center of sphere.
✓ Inside uniformly charged hallow sphere electric field is zero all where.

Variation of Electric field with r for uniformly charged hallow and solid sphere

Hallow Sphere Solid Shere

Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite line charge

From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜀𝑜
Charge inside Gaussian surface is
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ =
εo
𝜌𝐿
E =
2𝜋εo 𝑟

Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite hollow cylindrical charge

From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑜

Case 1: r > R, i.e point is outside the hollow cylinder

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 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
φ= ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 =
𝜀𝑜
Charge inside Gaussian surface is
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝐿 ℎ
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ =
εo
𝜌𝐿
E =
2𝜋εo 𝑟

Case 2: r < R, i.e point is inside hollow cylinder

Charge inside Gaussian surface is
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0

∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 = 0

𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = 0

𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 0
E = 0

Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite solid cylindrical charge

From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑜
Case 1: r > R, i.e. point is outside solid cylinder
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜀𝑜
Charge inside Gaussian surface is
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2 𝜌𝐿
E = = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝐿 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅 2
2πεo 𝑟 2πεo 𝑟

Case 2: r < R, i.e point is inside solid cylinder

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Charge inside Gaussian surface is
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ =
εo
𝜌𝑣 𝜋 𝜌𝐿
𝐸 = 𝑟= 𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝐿 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑅2
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅2

Notes:

✓ Uniformly charged hollow or solid cylinder for the point outside sphere behaves as uniformly
charge infinite line placed at the axis of cylinder.
✓ Inside uniformly charged infinite hollow cylinder electric field is zero all where.

Variation of Electric field with r for uniformly charge infinite line or cylinder

Hollow Cylinder Solid Cylinder

Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet having surface charge density 𝝆𝒔
From Gauss theorem
𝑄
φ = ∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑜
Charge inside Gaussian surface is

𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝑟 2
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
εo
𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 =
εo
1 2

𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝑟 2
2
2𝐸 × 𝜋𝑟 =
εo
𝜌𝑠
E =
2εo

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Electric dipole: Two equal and opposite charge separated by some distance is called electric dipole.

Where
✓ Q is called charge on dipole.
✓ 2a is called length of dipole.
✓ The lines joining positive and negative
charge are called axial line.
✓ Line perpendicular to axial line is called
equatorial line.
✓ There are infinite equatorial lines is
possible, the plane containing all those
equatorial lines are called equatorial
plane.

Electric dipole moment ( ⃗𝒑 ): Electric dipole moment of a dipole is a vector quantity having
magnitude multiplication of charge on dipole and distance between charge and direction from
negative charge towards positive charge.
𝑝 = 2𝑄𝑑 𝑢̂+−
𝑝 = 2𝑄𝑑 𝑅⃗+−
Where 𝑢
̂ +− is unit vector in the direction from negative charge towards positive charge.

Electric field due to dipole at its axial line

Electric field at point p due to charge Q
Q
⃗𝑬
⃗𝑸= 𝑖̂
4πεo (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
Electric field at point p due to charge -Q
Q
⃗⃗ −𝑸 =
𝑬 𝑖̂
4πεo (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
Net electric field is
⃗𝑬
⃗ = ⃗𝑬𝑸 + ⃗𝑬−𝑸
Q Q
⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝑖̂ − 𝑖̂
4πεo (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 4πεo (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
Q 4𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝑖̂
4πεo (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

1 (𝑄2𝑎𝒊)𝑟
⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝑖̂
2πεo (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝐩 𝑟
⃗⃗ =
𝑬
2πεo (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

𝒑 𝑟
𝑬=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

𝒓
If point is very far from dipole i.e. r >> a => ≈𝟎
𝒂
𝒑 𝑟
𝑬=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4 (1 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑟2
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 𝒑
𝑬=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3

Electric field due to dipole at equatorial line

𝑬𝑨 = 𝑬𝑩 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒔𝒂𝒚)
Q
𝑬𝟎 =
4πεo (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
Vertical component of electric force will be balanced
and net force will be in horizontal direction given as

𝐸 = 2𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
𝑄 𝑎
𝐸 = 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎) √𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
𝑄𝑎
𝐸 =2 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝑝
𝐸⃗ =− 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 = 2𝑄𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝒓
If point is very far from dipole i.e. r >> a ⇒ ≈ 𝟎
𝒂
𝑄𝑎
𝐸=2 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2
2𝑄𝑎
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3
𝑝
[ 𝐸⃗ = − ] since p = 2Qa having direction towards left here
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 3 𝑜

Dipole in uniform external Electric Field

Let an electric dipole is placed in uniform electric field, angle
between electric field and dipole moment vector is ϴ.
Force on positive charge
⃗𝑭+ = 𝑄𝑬
⃗⃗
Force on negative charge
⃗ − = −𝑄𝑬
𝑭 ⃗⃗
➢ Net force on electric dipole from equation (i) and (ii)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹+ + F− = 0
Net force acting on the dipole is zero so dipole will not have any linear motion.

➢ Torque of force on positive charge

̂
𝝉+𝑸 = −𝑄𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 𝒌
Torque of force on negative charge
̂
𝝉−𝑸 = −𝑄𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 𝒌
Net torque on dipole from equation (iii) and (iv)
⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 = −2𝑄𝑎𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 𝒌
𝝉 ̂ = 𝒑⃗ × 𝑬 ⃗⃗

⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒑
[𝝉 ⃗ ]
⃗ × 𝑬

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Note:

✓ Since torque is not zero so dipole will rotate.

✓ For ϴ =0o and 1800τnet = 0 and net force is also zero, so dipole is in equilibrium.
✓ For ϴ = 0o equilibrium is stable equilibrium because torque acts towards ϴ = 0o when deviated
from ϴ = 0o.
✓ For ϴ = 180o equilibrium is unstable equilibrium because torque acts away ϴ = 180o when
deviated from ϴ = 180o.

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