Electric charges and electric forces

Electricity comes from the Greek word electron which means amber.
There are three ways of electrifying objects:
● Electrification by friction (triboelectrification);
● Electrification by contact (touch);
● Electrification by induction.
The Electroscope is a device used to check whether an object is charged or not. It
contains two very thin leave, usually made from aluminium, inside a cage.
Origin of electric charges – electric charge of an atom
Elementary electric charge is the smallest indivisible charge that exist in the nature,
that is the charge of elecrons:

𝒆=𝟏.𝟔∙〖𝟏𝟎〗^(−𝟏𝟗) 𝐂
Electrification (the charging) by friction process involves rubbing of one particle on
another resulting in electrons moving from one surface to another. This method is useful
for charging insulators.
Contact electrification (The charging by conduction) process involves touching of a
charged particle to a conductive material. This way, the charges are transferred from the
charged material to the conductor. This method is useful for charging conductors
Induction charging is a charging method that charges an object without actually
touching the object to any other charged object. The charging by induction process is
where the charged particle is held near an uncharged conductive material that is
grounded on a neutrally charged material. The charge flows between two objects and
the uncharged conductive material develop a charge with opposite polarity.

A charged object always has a charge equal to :

Q=N·e
Where N is an integer, or it is said that the charge is quantized.
Law of conservation of charge..
Q=Q1+Q2+Q3+∙∙∙+Qn
Law of conservation of charge says that the net charge of an isolated system will always
remain constant. This means that any system that is not exchanging mass or energy
with its surroundings will never have a different total charge at any two times. Electric
charges are neither created nor destroyed, but only redistributed.
Conductors are substances in which electric charge can move freely. Metals are
generally good conductors.
Insulators (non-conductors) are substances in which electric charge cannot readily
move. Most other substances such as rubber, plastic, air, etc. are insulators.
Nearly all natural substances fall into one of these groups, except for a few materials
between these two groups. These are known as semiconductors and include silicon,
germanium and carbon.

Coulomb’s Law

The study of the behavior of resting charges is called electrostatics.

The point charges
The electricity charges which are on a very large distance, compared to the size of their
particles are considered as the point charges .
They do not exist in nature.
The magnitude of force F acting between two point of charges with magnitudes of
electricity q1 and q2 respectively, placed at a mutual distance r, depends directly
proportionally on the product of the magnitude of the charges, and inversely
proportionally of the square of their mutual distance.
The force is attractive and negative if the charges are opposite sign, and repulsive and
positive if the charges are of the same sign.
The force always has a direction along the line joining the two points particles.

𝒌=𝟏/(𝟒𝝅𝜺_𝟎 )
𝜺_𝟎 -dielectric constant of vacuum
𝜺_𝟎=𝟏/𝟒𝝅𝒌
𝜺_𝟎=𝟖,𝟖𝟓·〖𝟏𝟎〗^(−𝟏𝟐) (𝐂^𝟐 𝐍)/𝐦^𝟐
k - proportionality constant or Coulomb's constant
𝒌=𝟏/(𝟒𝝅𝜺_𝟎 )
𝒌=(𝑭〖∙𝒓〗^𝟐)/(𝒒_𝟏∙𝒒_𝟐 )
𝒌 = 𝟗∙𝟏𝟎𝟗 (𝐍𝐦^𝟐)/𝐂^𝟐

physical meaning of k
k is equal to the electrostatic force that appears when two electric charges of 1 C
interact with each other at a distance of 1m
When more than two charges interact, the force between any pair is given by Coulomb’s
equation. The net force acting on any given single charge is the vector sum of all forces
experienced by the given charge due to all the other charges present.

Charging by Induction
An electric dipole is defined as a couple of opposite charges “q” and “–q” separated by a
distance “d”. By default, the direction of electric dipoles in space is always from negative
charge “-q” to positive charge “q”. The midpoint “q” and “–q” is called the centre of the
dipole

Electric Fields
Electric field – is the physical field that surrounds any electrically charged object ( A
second charge experiences a force when it is placed in the electric field produced by the
first charge.
Electric field Е – force characteristic of the field
𝐸=𝐹/𝑞 = 2𝐹/(2𝑞 ) = 3𝐹/3𝑞 = ∙∙∙∙ = constant

Electric field E is defined as the force acting on a negligibly small positive test charge
when at that point in the vacuum, divided by this charge.

The electric field E depends only on the size of the charge Q which creates the field and
the distance at which the measurement is carried out, that is, the distance r at which the
test charge is located. but does not depend of the magnitude on the test charge q
𝐸 ⃗=𝐹 ⃗/𝑞
𝐹=𝑘 (𝑄∙𝑞)/𝑟^2 = 1/(4𝜋𝜀_0 ) (𝑄∙𝑞)/𝑟^2
𝑬=𝒌 𝑸/𝒓^𝟐 = 𝟏/(𝟒𝝅𝜺_𝟎 ) 𝑸/𝒓^𝟐
[𝐍/𝐂=𝐕/𝐦]-measure unit
Superposition Principle of Electric field
If there is more than one charge that produces electric fields, of (𝐸_1 ) ⃗, (𝐸_2 ) ⃗,….etc. at
a given point in space, the net electric field is the vector sum of all the fields due to each
individual charge. That is:
𝑬 ⃗=(𝑬_𝟏 ) ⃗+(𝑬_𝟐 )
E ⃗=

The electric field is visually represented by electric field lines.

A homogeneous electric field (the electric field is the same in every point of the field)
The surface charge density (σ) is called the quantity of charge per unit area, measured
in coulombs per square meter (Cm2), at any point on a two-dimensional surface,
Suppose q is the charge and a is the area of the surface over which it flows, then the
formula of surface charge density at the S.I. is:
𝝈=𝑸/𝑨
𝑬=𝝈/(𝟐𝜺_𝟎 )=𝑸/(𝟐𝜺_𝟎 𝑨)
In a homogeneous field (when the electric field vector at any point of the field is equal in
magnitude and direction) the lines of force are parallel to each other and have the same
density everywhere. The direction of the electric field is from the positive to the negative
charge.

Radial fields are drawn from a centre point. The field is stronger nearer the surface of
the object, and weakens as you move further away. For a positive charge, the arrows
point outwards, and for a negative charge, the arrows point inwards. The field is
directed into a negative point charge…
An inhomogeneous-heterogeneous field
The electric field lines are lines at which the electric field vector at any point on these
lines is a tangent to the field line passing through that point. The direction of the field
lines must be the same as the direction of the force acting on a positive test charge
placed at that point.
Work and energy in an electric field
𝑊=𝐹∆𝑠=𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑊=𝑊_1+𝑊_2
𝑊=𝑞𝐸∆𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼+𝑞𝐸∆𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠90°
𝑾=𝒒𝑬𝒅
The field does work:
W=𝐹 ⃗𝑟 ⃗ - general work equation
W>0- whenever the field forces do work, e.g. positive work under repulsive forces, in the
direction of the field forces
W<0 when external forces do work against the field forces, e.g. negative work in
attractive forces, as opposed to field forces
The electrostatic field
The electrostatic field is a so-called conservative field, in it the work of the electrostatic
forces does not depend on the trajectory along which the electric charge moves in that
field, but only on the initial and final position. When the test charge moves along a
closed line the work done is zero
𝑊=−(𝐸_𝑝2−𝐸_𝑝1 )
𝑊=−∆𝐸_𝑝
Work done by an electrostatic homogeneous field on a point electric charge when a test
positive charge moves through it.
𝐸=𝐹/𝑞=1/(4𝜋𝜀_0 ) 𝑄/𝑟^2
𝐹 ⃗=𝑞𝐸 ⃗
𝑾=𝒒𝑬𝒓

𝑊=𝑞/(4𝜋𝜀_0 ) 𝑄𝑟/𝑟^2 =1/(4𝜋𝜀_0 ) 𝑞𝑄/𝑟

Electric potential −𝜑
Electric potential at a given point in the field is a scalar quantity and is determined by
the potential energy that a single positive test charge would have at that point in the
field.
A potential of one volt has an electric field at a given point, if to transfer a unit positive
amount of electricity, from infinity at that point in the field, 1 J of work must be done.
𝝋=𝑾/𝒒=(Δ𝑬_𝒑)/𝒒 [𝟏𝐉/𝟏𝐂=𝟏𝐕]

𝑨=𝑭𝒓=𝒒𝑬𝒓
For point charge:
𝝋=𝒒𝑬𝒓/𝒒=𝑬𝒓=𝟏/(𝟒𝝅𝜺_𝟎 ) 𝑸/𝒓
Electric voltage - represents the potential difference between two points in the field
Δ𝐸𝑝=𝑞(𝜑_2−𝜑_1 )=−𝑞∆𝜑

∆𝜑=(𝜑_2−𝜑_1 )
𝑈=(𝜑_2−𝜑_1 )
𝑈= ∆𝜑=𝐸𝑟 (V/m)
𝝋 =𝝋_𝟏+𝝋_𝟐+∙∙∙+𝝋_𝒏=∑_(𝒊=𝟏)^𝒏∑_𝝋𝒊

Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surfaces are surfaces that have the same potential at a given point of it
Electric field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.

Conductors and Insulators

Conductivity in conductors is due to the free electrons that, as a collectivized gas, move
around the oscillating positive ions in the nodes of the crystal lattice.
The electron is the carrier of the smallest amount of electricity-elementary electric
charge.

The electric charge on any charged body is a multiple of the elementary charge
Q = ±Ne
Conductors in an electric field

E0-Ei=0 E0=Ei E=0

The electric field inside the conductor is zero.
The electric field is visually represented by electric field lines.
The surface charge density (σ) is called the quantity of charge per unit area, measured
in coulombs per square meter (C/m2), at any point on a two-dimensional surface,
Suppose q is the charge and a is the area of the surface over which it flows, then the
formula of surface charge density at the S.I. is:
𝝈=𝑸/𝑨
𝑬=𝝈/(𝟐𝜺_𝟎 )=𝑸/(𝟐𝜺_𝟎 𝑨)
The surface charge density is highest where the conductor surface is most curved.
The conductor surface is an equipotential surface.
E=U/d U=0 ∆φ=0 φ=const
Electric field in a material medium
If the interacting charges are in a homogeneous and isotropic environment, the field E
weakens by the value εr, that is:
𝐸=𝐸_0/𝜀_𝑟 ; 𝐸_0=1/(4𝜋𝜀_0 ) 𝑄/𝑟^2 ; →〖 𝜀〗_𝑟=𝐸_0/𝐸
(is a dimensionless number)
〖 𝜺〗_𝒓- relative permittivity (in older texts, dielectric constant) in a material medium
absolute permittivity ε:
𝜺=𝜺_𝟎 〖∙𝜺〗_𝒓 →
𝜺_𝟎- vacuum permittivity
𝜺_𝒓=𝜺/𝜺_𝟎

Electrical Capacity-Capacitors
The ratio between the amount of electrical charge carried on a conductor and the
corresponding voltage is called the electrical capacitance of that conductor.
Capacitance is the ability of a conductor (a material object or device) to store an electric
charge Q, when a potential difference U is applied to it. It is expressed as the ratio of
those quantities.

𝑪=𝑸/𝑼
The SI unit of electrical capacity is 1F (Farad)
𝟏𝐅=𝟏𝐂/𝐕
The capacitance of a conductor is one farad when one coulomb of charge changes its
potential by one volt. Equally, one farad can be described as the capacitance which
stores a one-coulomb charge across a potential difference of one volt.
Determining the size of the unit of capacitance by determining the radius of a
ball-shaped conductor with a capacitance of 1 Farad
If : C=1F
k=9·109Nm2/C2
𝜑=𝑘𝑄/𝑟
∆𝜑=𝑈⇒𝑈=𝑘𝑄/𝑟
𝐶=𝑄/𝑈⇒𝑈=𝑄/𝐶
𝑘𝑄/𝑟=𝑄/𝐶

𝒓=𝒌𝑪=𝟏/(𝟒𝝅ε_𝟎 ) 𝑪

𝑟=9∙10^9∙1m=9∙10^9 m=9∙10^6 km
Farad is a very small unit of measure
Smaller units than 1F used in practice:
1μF = 10-6F
1nF = 10-9F
1pF = 10-12F

A system consisting at list of two conductors with an insulating medium placed between
them is called capacitor. It is an electronic device that stores electrical energy in an
electric field by accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced surfaces that are
insulated from each other.
Once the capacitor is charged, the two conductors carry equal, but opposite charges.
The symbol of capacitor is:

Depending on the form, capacitors can be:

● Parallel – plate capacitors,
● Cylindrical capacitors
● Concentric spheres capacitors
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates each of area A, separated
by a distance d, with insulator between them. The charge of capacitor is the quantity Q
of charge of one plate. The capacitance of a that capacitor with the potential difference
between its plates is:𝑪=𝑸/𝑼

As the area of plates increases the ability of capacitor to store charge, i.e. its
capacitance increases, it means that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area
of its plates:
𝑪~𝑨
If the distance between the plates decreases their capacitance increases. Thus,
capacitance is inversely proportional to plate separation:
𝑪~𝟏/𝒅
So, the equation is completed by including a constant which depends on the medium
between the plates. If the medium is a vacuum, the constant is ε_𝟎 - permittivity of a
vacuum.
𝑪=ε_𝟎 𝑨/𝒅
If there is a dielectric between the plates of the capacitor with relative permittivity 〖 ε〗
_𝒓, than the capacitance increases:
𝑪=ε_𝟎 ε_𝒓 𝑨/𝒅
According to this equation the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:
Depends on the medium between the plates of the capacitor
Is directly proportional to the area of its plates
Is inversely proportional to plate separation
Capacitance of a capacitor
Capacitance of a capacitor with a vacuum placed between the plates of the capacitor
𝐶=𝑄/(𝑈_1−𝑈_2 )=𝑄/𝑈
𝐶=𝜀_0 𝑆/𝑑
Capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric placed between the plates of the capacitor
𝜀_𝑟=𝐶/𝐶_0
𝐶=𝜀_𝑟 𝐶_0
𝐶=𝜀_𝑟 𝜀_0 𝑆/𝑑
𝐶=𝜀 𝑆/𝑑
Series Combinations
If two or more capacitors are connected as a figure, they are said to be connected
series. Initially the capacitors are uncharged. When one plate of C3 is connected to the
(-) terminal of the battery, this plate gains –Q and repels negative charges on the other
plate, this plate will than be charged to +Q. The negative charge which leaves the +Q
charged plate enters the adjacent plate of capacitor C2from capacitor C3. This plate of
the capacitor C2 is than charged –Q and the other plate of this capacitor is charged +Q.
Therefore, in series combinations, charges on each capacitor are equal.
 𝑄=𝑄_1=𝑄_2=𝑄_3
The voltage supplied by the battery is U and it is equal to the sum of the potential
differences across each capacitor
𝑈=𝑈_1+𝑈_2+𝑈_3
The capacitance of a single capacitor which replaces the series combination of
capacitors C1, C2,….. Is called equivalent capacitance.
In series connected capacitors, the reciprocal value of the equivalent capacity is equal
to the sum of the reciprocal values of the capacity of the individual capacitors. The
equivalent capacity is the smallest.
𝑈=𝑈_1+𝑈_2+𝑈_3
𝑄=𝑄_1=𝑄_2=𝑄_3
𝐶=𝑄/𝑈 → 𝑈=𝑄/𝐶
𝑄/𝐶=𝑄/𝐶_1 +𝑄/𝐶_2 +𝑄/𝐶_3
𝟏/𝑪_𝒆𝒒 =𝟏/𝑪_𝟏 +𝟏/𝑪_𝟐 +𝟏/𝑪_𝟑
Parallel Combinations
If two or more capacitors are connected as a figure, they are said to be connected
parallel. Initially, capacitors C1, C2, C3, are uncharged. If the potential difference U is
applied across these capacitors, the plates connected to the positive terminal of the
battery are charged positively and the plates connected to the negative terminal are
charged negatively. Since the plate of each capacitor are connected to the same
potential difference, their potentials are equal. Thus we can write:
In parallel-connected capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the
capacitances of the individual capacitors. The equivalent capacity is the largest.

𝑈=𝑈_1=𝑈_2=𝑈_3
𝑄=𝑄_1+𝑄_2+𝑄_3
𝐶=𝑄/𝑈 → 𝑄=𝐶𝑈
𝐶𝑈=𝐶_1 𝑈+𝐶_2 𝑈+𝐶_3 𝑈
𝑪_𝒆𝒒=𝑪_𝟏+𝑪_𝟐+𝑪_𝟑 " "
Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
Determination of energy stored in a capacitor
The total work needed to increase the capacitor’s charge from zero to q, which is also
equal to the total work done by the electric field on charge, when the capacitors
discharges, is:
∆𝑊=𝑈𝑞
Consider a parallel plate capacitor that is initially uncharged, so that the initial potential
difference is zero. After charging it, the final potential difference across the capacitor
reaches U. The average potential difference during the charging process is
𝑈_𝑎𝑣=(0+𝑈)/2=𝑈/2
So the work needed to charge capacitor is:
𝑊=1/2 𝑞𝑈
Because:
𝐶=𝑞/𝑈
𝑾=Δ𝑬𝒑=𝟏/𝟐 𝑪𝑼^𝟐 =𝟏/𝟐 𝒒^𝟐/𝑪
The energy stored in a capacitor is proportional to the capacitance of the capacitor and
the square of the voltage with which it is charged.
For every capacitor there is a limit to the quantity of charge which can be stored,
therefore the energy that can be stored also has a maximum level.