PHYSICS 2

ELECTROMAGNETISM
The study of electrical and magnetism
phenomena and the relationship between
them.
History of Electromagnetism
Michael Faraday & J ames Clerk Maxwell
They were further developed
But, Maxwell expressed Faradays idea as
mathematical equations alongside his own.
Hans Christian Oested
Found-out that there is connection between
electricity and magnetism when he noticed
that an electric current deflects a compass
needle.
Rubbing a piece of amber would enable
it to attract bits of straw.
This phenomenon is already known
in ancient Greece.

The world Electron, the negatively
charged subatomic particles, came
from the Greek word which means
Amber.
History
Electric Charge
Like mass, is a fundamental property
of certain of the elementary particles of
which all matter is composed.

Fundamental physical quantity
responsible for electric phenomena.
Two kind of Electric charge
Positively charge
Negatively charge

Fundamental rule of all electric phenomena:
Like charges it repels.
Opposite charges it attracts.

This phenomena was discovered by Charles Du Fay
in 1733. The basic law of Electrostatics.
F
F
F
F
Charged Particles
Matter is made-up of atoms.
Each atom consist of Proton, Electron and Neutron.
Proton are particles with positive charge.
Electron are particles with negative charge.
Neutron are particles with no charge.

Protons and Neutron are bound to form the
nucleus of the atom. Electron are mobile,
moving around the nucleus and can move
from one nucleus to another.
Quantization of charge
Each Proton has a charge of +1.6x10
-19
C
Each Electron has a charge of -1.6x10
-19
C
The Unit of Charge is coulomb (C).
The charge 1.6x10
-19
C is denoted as e.

Hence, each proton has charge of +e and each
electron has charge of e.
Since the charge of all object ultimately depends on
the number of Protons and Electrons, all charges are
discrete values of e.
There can only be 1e, 2e, 3e . . . . ne, but, it is not
possible to have 0.5e or 0.125e.
Q = n e
Where:

Q = Charge (Coulomb)
n = quantity Integer ( a
complete entity or any of the
natural number with + & -)
e = (1.6 x 10
-19
C)
Sample problem:
How many electrons must be added to a
neutrally charged body to give a net
charge of -1C?

An object has a net positive charge of 0.08
C if 1.5 x10
18
electron were transferred to
that object, How much is the new charge?
CHARGING

There are different ways of
making an object positively
and negatively charged.

Charging by Friction
It happens when one object rubbing
with another object allows the transfer
of electrons from one to the other.
Charging by Contact
It happens when electrons are
transferred by simply touching one
object with another.
Charging by Induction
It allows the movement of charges
within a conductor even without
touching or rubbing it with another
object.
Electricity conduction
Most substances conduct
electricity either very well or
very badly.

Conductors

Insulators

Semi-conductors

Super-conductors

Every materials can be classified
accordingly:
Conductors
Through which charge can flow easily
from one substance to another.
Has high electron mobility.
(free electron flow)

Insulators
Materials that do not allow much
movement of charge
Has low electron mobility.
(few or no free electron flow)
Semiconductor
Materials that has varying conducting
properties depending on the impurities
and the charges present on the material.

Superconductor
Materials that become perfect conductors
at extremely low temperature.

State that the Force between two charges is
proportional to the product of the charges
and is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
2
2 1
r
q q
k F
e
=
COULOMB S LAW
Gave a quantitative description of the strength of
attraction and repulsion between charges.




q
1
and q
2
are the amount of charges in the particles
(in coulombs or C).
r is the distance between two charged particles (in
meter).
k is the proportionality constant = 9 x10
9
Nm
2
/c
2
.

0
is a permeability constant = 8.854 x10
-12
c
2
/Nm
2
.


|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2 1
0
2
2 1
4
1
r
q q
r
q q
k F
e
tc
Sample Problem:
A hydrogen atom is composed of an
electron and a proton. The Bhor radius
of the hydrogen atom is 5.30 x10
-11
m.
Compute for the electrical force
between the proton and the electron in
the atom.
Electrostatic Force (F)
-
+
F
r
Q
1
Q
2
Electrical & Static Force

BOHR RADIUS
Notation of Electrostatic
Force
(Like charge repel, unlike charge attract.)
+
-
+ -
-
+
r
r
r
F F
F F
F F
Sample problem:
Three point charges in a plane forming a right triangle,
as shown figure below. Find the magnitude of
electrostatic force acting on each charge.
+
+
-
0.2 m
0.3 m
Q
1
= 1.0 nC
Q
2
= 3.0 nC Q
3
= 2.0 nC
1. Find the electrostatic force between two
electrons 2 mm apart?
2. Two identical charge of 4 C each are 10 mm
apart. Find the Electrostatic force.
3. Two point charges Q
1
= 4C, Q
2
= 2C are 30
cm apart.
4. Three point charges are along the same line,
as shown in the figure below. Find the
Electrostatic force between each charge.
Problem solving:
Q
1
= +3C
Q
1
= -5C
Q
1
= +8C
20 mm
35 mm
ELECTRIC
FIELDS
Force at a Distance
Forces that one object can exert to another
object with or without physical contact
between the objects.
Examples are Gravity and
Electrostatic force.
Object with mass surrounded by
gravitational field. Object with charge
are surrounded by electric field.
Law of Gravitation
Gravitational field
Equations:
The equation of gravity:
Universal Law of Gravitation



The equation of Electrostatic force:
Coulombs Law


2
2 1
r
m m
G F
g
=
2
2 1
r
Q Q
k F
e
=
Electric Field
Field of force that surround a
charged object or particle.

Force per unit Charge.

It is denoted as E, and its unit is
Newton per coulomb:
+
+Charge
Electric Fields
Where:
E = Electric field
Q = Charge
r = radius of the field
k = proportionality constant
2
r
Q
k E =
Electric field equation
Made of infinitely many electric field vectors.
Electric of a positive charges directed away
from the charge.
The electric field of negative charge is directed
toward the charge.

+Q -Q
P
P
Drawing Electric Field Lines
The lines must begin on positive
charges (or infinity)
The lines must end on negative charge
(or infinity)
The number of lines leaving a positive
charge (or approaching a negative
charge) is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
Proportionality
+ 2+
Sample Problem:
1. Find (a) the magnitude of an electrons electric field
at 50.0 cm away from the electron. (b) if the another
electron is placed at this distance, what would be
the magnitude of electrostatic force between the
electrons? (c) Is the force attractive or repulsive?

2. Two charges, Q
1
= +1.5 x 10
-8
C and Q
2
= +3.0
x 10
-8
C are 100 mm apart. What is the
magnitude of the electric field halfway between
them?
GAUSS LAW
A relation between the electric field at all
the points on a closed surface and the total
charge enclosed within the surface.

Named after Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-
1855

An alternative to Coulombs Law.

Uses symmetry properties of given charges
to simplify electric field calculations.
The strength of an electric field over an area in field
region.
Quantifies the notion number of field lines crossing a
surface.
The dot product of electric field vector passing through
the area and the area vector.



Where:
E = Electric field
A = Area of the surface
= Angle of elevation of the surface
u | cos EA EA= =
Electric Flux ()
GAUSS LAW
= EA cos 0
0
E
A
= EA cos 90
0

A
E
= EA cos 30
0
A
E
Sample problem:
If the electric field in the region has a
magnitude of 2.0 x 10
3
N/C and passing
through the surface with an area
0.0214 m
2
. The area vector is oriented
at an angle of 50
0
with respect to the
electric field. Find the electric flux.
Gaussian surface
A hypothetical surface immersed in electric
field.
It may or may not enclose a charge.
Can be of any shape you wish to make it, but
the most useful surface is one that mimics
the symmetry of the problem at hand.
The area vector is always the face outside
the enclosed surface.
Net flux
Gauss Law in mathematical form:




Where q
enc
is the total charge enclosed.
Any Gaussian surface that does not enclose any
charge has zero electric flux.
If a Gaussian surface encloses a positive charge (or
positive sum of several enclosed charges), the
electric flux is positive.
If a Gaussian surface encloses a negative charge (or
negative sum of several enclosed charges), the
electric flux is negative.

0
c
|
enc
q E
=
No enclosed charge
(Zero flux)
Positive charge enclosed
(Positive flux)
Negative charge enclosed
(Negative flux)
Sample problem:
Given five charges of values Q
1
= Q
5
= +3.1 nC,
Q
2
= Q
4
= -5.9 nC & q
3
= +3.1 nC, find the net
electric flux through the Gaussian surface S
shown in the figure below.
-
-
-
+
+
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
Q
4
Q
5
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY
Potential energy due to the location of a charge in
an external electric field.
If a charge Q
0
is within the electric field of another
charge Q, the potential of Q
0
is





Where r is the distance of Q
0
from Q.

r
QQ
k U
e
0
=
Work done in Electric Field
It is negative change in potential
energy.



If the charge moves between two
points with different electric field
intensity.



U W A =
Conclusion:
When a positive/negative charge moves in the
direction of an electric field, the field does
positive/negative work and the potential energy
decreases.

When positive charge moves in the direction
opposite to an electric field, the field does negative
work and the potential energy increases.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential energy per unit
charge arises due to location within an
electric field.

Related to electrostatic potential
energy in the same way electrostatic
force is related to electric field.
For a point charge Q, the electric potential at
point r away from the point charge is:




If a test charge Q
0
is placed in a region where
the electric potential is V, the electric potential
energy of the point charge is




r
Q
r
Q
k V
0
4tc
= =
V Q U
e 0
=
The unit is volts (v)

1V = 1 J/C

Also known as voltage.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
What is the electric potential at a
distance of 5.29 x 10
-11
m from the
proton? What is the potential energy
of the electron and proton at this
separation?
Electric Potential and Electric
Field
The relationship between electric potential V
and electric field E is




Where r is the distance from the charge of
the point under consideration.
Er V =
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
(a) Find the magnitude of a protons
electric field at 50.0 cm away from it.
(b) What is the electric potential at this
distance?
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Work done per unit charge
as a charge is moved
between two points in an
electric field.


If a test charge Q is
moved from point A to
point B, the potential
difference between A and
B is:

Q
W
V = A
( )
Q
W
V V V
A B
= = A
Potential of the earth arbitrarily said
to be zero.

Ultimate responsible for the
movement of charge and generation
of electric current.
Potential Difference (V)
Can be either positive or negative with
respect to the earth, depending on the nature
of the charge.

W
AB
is positive the electric potential at B will be
higher than the electric potential at point A.

W
AB
is negative the electric potential at B will be
lower than the electric potential at point A.

W
AB
is zero the electric potential at B will be the
same as the electric potential at point A.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The work done on a 5.0 C charge is
7.5 J as it is moved from point A,
where the potential difference is
2.0 V, to another point B. What is
the electric potential difference
between points A and points B?
What is the potential at point B?
POTENTIAL FOR MULTIPLE
CHARGES
Calculate the separate potentials of each charge.
Add the potentials with these signs corresponding to
the sign of the charge.






Where n is the number of charges.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + =
+ + + =
n
n
n
r
Q
r
Q
r
Q
r
Q
k V
V V V V V
.........
.......
3
3
2
2
1
1
3 2 1
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The three charges in with Q
1
= 8x10
-9
C, Q
2
=
2.0x10
-9
C and Q
3
= -4.0x10
-9
C; are separated
by distance r
21
= 0.03m and r
31
= 0.05m. Find:
Potential due to Q
2
at the point occupied
by Q
1
.

Potential due to Q
3
at the point occupied
by Q
1
.

Net potential at point occupied by Q
1
.

CAPACITOR
Also called condenser
A device to stores charge in the
electric field between its plates.
The plates carry charges of the same
magnitude and opposite sign.
Ant two parallel conductors separated
by an insulator (or vacuum).
Symbol:
Example of capacitor
Plates
CAPACITANCE
The ability of a capacitor is to store
energy.
The ratio of charge to potential
difference.
The unit is Farad (F) = coulomb/volt
Capacitance depends on:
Area of the plates
Distance between the plates
Nature of insulating materials (Dielectric)

Space between the plates has uniform
electric field.
The potential difference (V ) voltage between
the plates a and b is given by:



Where E is the electric field and r is between plates
Er V V V
b a ab
= =
Capacitance for parallel plates
capacitors
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:



Where:

0
= permeability constant of the free space

= 8.85 x 10
-12
c
2
/Nm
2
= 8.85 x 10
-12
F/m
A = area of the plate
r = distance between the plate

r
A
V
Q
C
ab
0
c = =
A larger area will have less repulsion
between charges.
A greater separation means lesser charge is
drawn and the capacitance is less.
+ Q
- Q
A
r
Sample problem:
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor
are 5.00 mm apart and 2.00 m
2
in area.
A potential difference of 10,000 volts is
applied across the capacitor. Compute
the capacitance, the charge on the
plate and the magnitude of the electric
field in the space between them.
DIELECTRIC
Insulating/non-conducting material between the plates
of the capacitor.
Its function include:
Solve the mechanical problem of maintaining two
plates at a very small separation w/o actual contact.
Increased the maximum possible voltage between
the two plates w/o experiencing a dielectric
breakdown.
Dielectric breakdown happens when the dielectric
materials becomes slightly conducting.
Increase capacitance.

Dielectric Constant
Ratio between the capacitance of a capacitor
when a dielectric material is present (C) and
its capacitance when the space between its
plate is a vacuum (C
0
)
o
C
C
k =
Where:
k = dielectric constant
C = Capacitance if there is
dielectric
C
0
= capacitance without
dielectric
Ratio of the permittivity of the dielectric and
the permittivity in a vacuum.






Always greater the 1 because C>C
0
, when
the charge on the plate is constant. It is also
unitless.
Where:
k = dielectric constant
= Capacitance if there is
dielectric

0
= capacitance without
dielectric
= 8.85 x 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
o
k
c
c
=
Dielectric Materials
PLATE
PLATE
+
-
Sample problem:
The parallel plates of a capacitor have an area of 2.00 x
10
-1
m
2
and have a separation distance of 1.00 x 10
-2
m
and are connected to 3000 volts power supply.
The capacitor is then disconnected from the supply, and
an dielectric is inserted between the plates, Find that the
potential difference decreases to 1000 volts while the
charge on each plate remain constant.
Find the following:
a) Original capacitance (C),
b) magnitude of charge on each plate,
c) capacitance, C after dielectric is inserted,
d) the dielectric constant k of the dielectric
e) permittivity of the dielectric
EQUIVALENT
CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of the single capacitor that
can replace a set of interconnected
capacitors.
C
T
V
T
C
1
C
3
C
2
V
T
Capacitors in Series Connection
The end of the capacitor is connected
to the end of the adjacent capacitor.
C
1
C
3
C
2
V
T
The relationship of individual capacitances,
charges and voltage to equivalent
capacitance, charge and voltage respectively
are as follow:


n T
n T
n T
C C C C C
V V V V V
Q Q Q Q Q
1
......
1 1 1 1
......
......
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
+ + + + = E
+ + + + = E
= = = = =
Capacitors in Parallel connection
Each has one end joined to the
corresponding end of all the other
capacitors.
C
1
C
2
C
3
V
T
n T
n T
n T
C C C C C
V V V V V
Q Q Q Q Q
+ + + + = E
= = = = =
+ + + + = E
......
......
......
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
The relationship of individual
capacitances, charges and voltage to
equivalent capacitance, charge and
voltage respectively are as follow:

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. Two capacitors one is 491 F and the other is
30 F are connected in series across a 12 volts
battery. Find the equivalent capacitance of the
combination, the charge on each capacitor and
the potential difference across it.
2. Two capacitor one is 5 F and the other 2 F are
connected in parallel across a 100 volts battery.
Find the equivalent capacitance of the
combination, the charge of each and the
potential difference on each capacitor.
What is the equivalent capacitance of the
mixed series and parallel capacitors shown
below?
5mF
4mF
18mF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
A flow of charge from one place to
another. The unit is Ampere, which
equal to a flow of 1 coulomb per
second.
Moving charges as a current
Its described as a stream of moving
charges.
May range very small currents such
as the nerve impulses to a large as
the solar wind emitted by the sun.
There must be a net flow of
charges towards one direction.
When moving charges is not a
current
When there is no net flow of charge
even though there are actual
movement.
Example:
Electrons of a copper conductor in
absence of electric potential.
Electrons just move randomly the charge
flowing charge flowing to one direction is
equal to those flowing to the other
direction.
Electric current in a conductor
An isolated conductor in absence of
electric potential contains free flowing
electrons but no electric current.
Isolated
conductor
charges
A conductor connected to a dry cell or
battery has the necessary electric potential
to influence the flow of charges towards one
direction, hence producing current.
Battery
+ -
Conductor
Charges
Direction of charges
Electric current (I ) is defined as the amount of
charges passing through a hypothetical plane
intersecting the conductor per unit of time.
Its unit is coulomb per second (C/s), also called
ampere (A).
t
Q
I =
Where:
I = Current (ampere, A)
Q = Charge (coulomb, c)
t = Time (second, s)
-
-
-
-
-
-
t = t
0
t = t
0
+ 1 s

plane plane
Independent to the selection of hypothetical
plane
a b
c
a
b
c
I
I
Sample problem:
A wire carries a current of 0.8
ampere. How many electrons
passes every section of the wire
every one second?
Current is a scalar quantity
Electric current is moving along a
conductor has only two possible
directions.
Electric current are scalars. Adding and
Subtracting the current does not
consider the orientation of the
conductor in space.
I
0
I
1
I
2
I
0
= I
1
+ I
2
DIRECTION OF CURRENT
In reality, electric current are movement
of electrons along the conductor.

For historical reason, current is treated
as flow of positive charges to the
direction opposite that of the actual
movement of electrons.
These positive charges are not actual
particles. They are called holes, vacant
spaces where there should be an
electron. The charge of a hole is +1.6 x
10
-19
C.

Electrons are known as negative
charge carriers. Holes are known as
positive charge carriers.
Drift Speed
The net motion of charged particles as a
group:

A v q n
t
Q
I
d
/ / = =
Where:
I = electric current (A)
n = charge concentration
v
d
= drift velocity (m/s)
e = charge of electron
A = cross-sectional area
of conductor(m
2
)

Usually very small (10
-5
or 10
-4
m/s) compared
to random motion of charges (10
-6
m/s)

I
in
I
in A
Current Density
Current per unit of cross-sectional area of a
conductor.

A vector quantity with the same direction as
the motion of positive charge carriers.
d
v e n
A
I
J / / = =
Where:
I = electric current (A)
J = current density (A/m
2
)
n = charge concentration
v
d
= drift velocity (m/s)
e = charge of electron
A = cross-sectional area
of conductor(m
2
)

Sample Problem:
A 491 gauge copper wire has a
nominal diameter of 0.64 mm. This
wire carries a constant current of 1.67
A to a 4,910 watts lamp. The density of
free electron is 8.5 x 10
28
electrons/m
3
.
Find the current density and the
magnitude of drift velocity.
Types of Current
Direct current
The direction of current is constant.
The graph of current vs time is a straight
line.
Developed by Tomas Alva Edison
Soon replaced by alternating current as
primary means of transmitting electricity, but
still used in battery operated devices.
Alternating Current
The direction and magnitude of the current
continuously changes between two extremes.
The graph of current vs time is sinosoid.
Developed by Nikola Tesla and George
Westinghouse, forming rivalry with Thomas
Edison on War of the Currents.
The most commonly used method of electric
transmission today.
Direct Current
Alternating Current
I (A)
t (s)
I (A)
t (s)
ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE
Electric Resistance
Property of the conducting medium that
weakens the transmission of electric current.
Denoted as R and its unit is Ohm ().
A
L
R

=
Where:
R = Resistance (Ohm, )
= resistivity (m)
L

= Length of the wire (m)
A = cross-sectional area
of a wire(m
2
)

Approximate resistivities (at 20
0
C)
and their temperature coefficient.
Substance (.m) (k
-1
)
Aluminum 2.6 x
10-8
0.0039
Copper 1.7 x
10-8
0.0039
Iron 12 x
10-8
0.005
Lead 21 x
10-8
0.0043
Mercury 98 x
10-8
0.00088
Platinum 11 x
10-8
0.0036
Silver 1.6 x
10-8
0.0038
Sample Problem:
A piece of 1.0 m wire has a resistance
of 0.19 ohms. Calculate the resistivity
of the wire. The cross-sectional area of
the wire is 0.5 mm
2
.

L
A
Resistivity & Conductivity
Resistivity ()
Measure of how much resistance a
material possesses against electric
current.
Intrinsic property of a material that
depends on its electronic structure.
Conducting material
Electric field
Measure by placing the material between
two plates with constant electric field (E )
and taking the ratio of electric field and
current density (J ).
J
E
=
Varies with temperature
Where:
= resistivity (m)
E = electric field (N/c)
J = current density (A/m
2
)
Conductivity
Measure of how the material is capable of
conducting electricity.
Reciprocal of resistivity.
Variation of Resistivity with
Temperature
Over a wide range of temperature, the graph of
resistivity vs temperature of metal is linear.

400 200 0 1200 1400
2
8
0
4
6
10
600 800 1000
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

1
0
-
8

m

R
o
o
m

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

Temperature (Kelvin)
Variation of Resistivity with
Temperature
Thus it can be represented by a Linear
equation.
( )
0 0 0
T T = o
Where:
= resistivity (m)

0
= resistivity at room temperature (m)

T = temperature (Kelvin,K)
T
0
= room temperature (K)
= coefficient of resistivity (K
-1
)


The Temperature coefficient of
resistivity () determines how
much resistivity increases with
temperature.

Its unit is (per Kelvin)K
-1
.
Sample Problem:
What is the resistivity of iron at 200K?
Use the values of resistivity (at room
temperature) and temperature
coefficient of the resistivity in the
handout.
Ohms Law
The current I (Ampere, A) is directly
proportional to the potential difference V
(Volt,V) with resistance R (ohms,) as the
proportionality constant.
IR V =
Assumed that the resistance does not
vary with voltage or current.

Not all conducting material follow
Ohms Law. Those are follow are said
to be ohmic , while those that do not
are said to be non ohmic.
Current Potential Difference graph of a
1000 W resistor, an Ohmic device.

-4 -2 0 +2
+4
-2
+2
0
Current (mA)
Potential Difference (V)
Current vs Potential Difference graph of a
pn junction diode, a non-ohmic device.

-4 -2 0 +2
+4
-2
+2
0
Current (mA)
Potential Difference (V)
Single Loop Circuit
Circuit
Close network of electronic devices
through which current constantly flows.
EMF Device
Maintain potential difference.
Provides steady flow of charge.
EMF stand for Electromotive force.
R
EMF
I
+
-
+
-
I
The Resistor
Provides a resistance to the circuit.
It was specially designed to only provide
certain amount of resistance.
An Ohmic device
Such conductor device.
It was verified experimentally by the German
physicist Georg Ohm (1787-1854).

Electromotive Force
A circuit consists of electrons from the negative
terminal of a battery to the positive terminal of the
battery.
Electrons must then return to the negative terminal,
or current will stop flowing.
The electron are forced into this higher potential by a
electromotive force.
EMF
EMF Devices:

Battery or Dry Cell

Electrochemical Cell

Electric Generator

Photovoltaic Cell
Internal Resistance
The resistance found inside real batteries
Lessen the output voltage of the battery.
Denoted as r
i
Its SI unit is Ohms ().
A real battery is now drawn as:

EMF
r
i
Terminal Potential Difference (TPD)

The output voltage of a source of emf after
internal resistance takes effect.
The equation used to solve for terminal
potential difference is:
TPD = E Ir
i
Where:
TPD = voltage across the source (V)
E = voltage if the source is ideal emf (V)
r
i
= internal resistance of the source ()
I = current flowing through the battery (A)

A 6.0 V battery is connected to an
external 6.0 0hms resistor.
(a) What is the value of the current
flowing through the external circuit
if there is no internal resistance,
(b) What is the value of the current
flowing through the external circuit
when the internal resistance is 0.3
ohms?
Sample Problem:
Resistors in Single
Loop Circuit

Where: R is resistance, I is electric
current and V is electric potential
difference.
R
3
V
T
I
T
+
-
+
R
2
+
R
1
+
-
-
-
R
T
Resistors in Series Circuit.
Equivalent resistance in a Series
Circuit
n T
n T
n T
V V V V V
I I I I I
R R R R R
+ + + + =
= = = = =
+ + + + =
.........
........
.......
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
Sample problem:
Resistors R
1
= 2.00 ohms, R
2
= 3.00
ohms and R
3
= 4.00 ohms are in series
connection with a voltage source of
100.0 volts. Find the equivalent
resistance, electric current and electric
potential difference.
Resistor in Parallel Circuit
R
3
V
T
I
T
+
-
+
R
2
+
R
1
+
-
-
-
R
T
I
3
I
2
I
1
Equivalent resistance in a
Parallel Circuit
n T
n T
n T
V V V V V
I I I I I
R R R R R
= + = = = =
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
.........
........
1
.......
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
Sample problem:
Resistors R
1
= 3.00 ohms, R
2
= 5.00
ohms and R
3
= 7.00 ohms are in parallel
connection with a voltage source of
110.0 volts. Find the equivalent
resistance, electric current and electric
potential difference.
Resistors in Single Loop Circuit
Resistor in Series-Parallel Circuit
R
3
V
T
I
T
+
-
+
R
2
+
R
1
+
-
-
-
R
T
POWER IN
CIRCUITS
The Power in the Circuits
Flow of current across a circuit.

Movement of a charge across a electric
device:
It moves from higher potential to lower
potential.
Hence, there is a decrease in potential energy.

Q
If there is a decrease in potential
energy, there must be a transmission to
another form of energy.
Light bulb: to heat and light.
Electric motor: to mechanical energy
Resistor: Internal energy/heat.
The rate at which
electric potential
energy is
transformed to
another form of
energy is the
POWER in the
circuit.
R
V
P
R I P
IR P
2
2
=
=
=
Sample Problem:
A current flowing through a 25.0
ohm resistor is 2.0 A. How much
power is dissipated by the resistor.
MULTILOOP
CIRCUIT
Provides multiple paths for current.
When one component was cut-off,
others can still function.
What happen when one component in a
series circuit was cut-off?
What happen when one component in a
multiloop circuit was cut-off?
Current in a Multiloop Circuit
The point where three or more segments
of the conductor meet is called the
junction.
The current split at the junction.
Junction
current
GUSTAV KIRCHHOFF
German physicist who, in the collaboration
with Robert William Bunsen, develop ed the
science of spectrum analysis.
He showed that each element, when heated
to incandescence.
He produced a characteristic pattern of
emission lines.
He formulated Kirchhoffs Law for electric
circuit.
(1824-1887)
In any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all EMFs
and potential drop is equal to zero. (Using loop
direction)
KIRCHHOFFS LAW
R
2
+
Emf
1
+
-
R
1
+
Emf
2
+
-
R
3
+
Loop 1
Loop 2
I
1 I
2
I
3
-
At any point in a circuit, the sum of the
currents leaving the junction point is equal to
the sum of all the current entering the
junction point. (Using current direction).

R
2
+

1
+
-
R
1
+

2
+
-
R
3
Junction point
I
1
I
3
I
2
+
Sample Problem:
In a given circuit below, Find: a) I
1
, b) I
2
and c) I
3
10

+
9v

+
-
15

+
12v

+
-
5

I
1
I
3
I
2
+
RC CIRCUIT
(Resistor and Capacitor in a circuit)
Resistor- Capacitor in a circuit.
R

+
-
C
S
1
S
2

+
-
Where: = Batteries (Emf)
S
1
& S
2
= Switches
R = Resistor
C = Capacitor
Open
Close
Charging a capacitor
C R
V V + = c
R

+
-
C
S
1
S
2

+
-
I
I
I
I I
closed
open
Where:
V
R
= Potential difference
across the resistor.
V
C
= Potential difference
across the capacitor.
I
Current I
O
at the moment S
1
closed (t = 0)



Current I at any time t after S
1
closed:



After some time t
The charge of the capacitor (q) increases
Current (I ) decreases.

R
I
c
=
0
RC
q
R
I =
c
Until the capacitor reaches its equilibrium
charge (q
eq
), happen when V
C
reaches V
C
=
, which result to I = 0
c
c
C q
RC
q
R
eq
= =
Charge and current of the capacitor at any
given time t after t = 0.
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
RC
t
RC
t
e C q
e
R
I
1 c
c
The time constant () of RC series circuit.
The unit of time constant is second.
At time t =
Q = 0.63 C
I = 0.37 I
o
The charging time of RC circuits are often
stated in terms of time constant.
Sample Problem:
A resistor with resistance R=1.0 x 10
6
,
capacitor with capacitance C=2.2 x 10
-6
F, a
voltage source with = 100 v, and a switch
are all connected in a single loop series
circuit. The switch is initially open. When the
switch is closed, calculate:
(a) Initial current across the resistor
(b) Equilibrium charge of the capacitor
(c) Time constant of the circuit
(d) Current through the resistor after 5 seconds
(e) Charge of the capacitor after 5 second
(f) Charge of the capacitor at t =
MAGNETISM
Introduction to Magnetism
The first known magnet are the stoned exposed to
earths magnetic field called Loadstones, discovered
by early Greeks and Chinese.
Magnet are surrounded by a field of force called
magnetic field.
The magnetic force, force exerted by magnets to
magnetic materials is a force at distance, just like
gravity and electric force.
One of the earliest applications of magnetism is the
magnetic compass.
Diskette, ATM cards and some other storage device
contain tiny bits of magnetic materials. Exposure to
magnetic field would damage these devices.
Magnetic field of magnets
The magnetic of a magnet has the greatest concentration on its
two ends called poles.
Magnetic field line are drawn to be emanating from the north
pole and terminates to the south pole.
N
S
N S
N
S
Bar Magnet
Horseshoe
Magnet
C-shaped
Magnet
The magnetic field lines is made up
of infinite number of magnetic field
vectors. Magnetic field vectors are
drawn tangent to the magnetic field
line.
This method of visualizing magnetic
fields was proposed by Michael
Faraday, who initially called magnetic
field lines of force or line of
induction.
N S
Magnetic field
Magnetic field
Rules in drawing magnetic field lines
The direction of the tangent to a magnetic field
line at any point gives the direction of the
magnetic field vector at that point.

The spacing between the lines represents the
magnitude of the magnetic field.

Magnetic field lines emanate from the north pole
and terminate at the south pole.
Polarity of Magnet
Similar poles repel and opposite pole
attracts.
When a magnet is divided into two (or
several parts), each part has its own north
and south poles.
As far as the current theories of
magnetism are concerned, there are no
magnetic monopoles.
N N
N
S
S
S
N
N
N
S
S
S
REPULSION
REPULSION
ATTRACTION
Definition of Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is defined in terms of force it can
exert on a charge particle, called magnetic
force.
Magnetic force is a cross-product:

| qv F =
Where:
F = Magnetic force (Newton)
q = charge (coulomb)
v = velocity (m/s)
= Magnetic field (Tesla)

The magnitude of the magnetic force is:





The direction of the magnetic force can be
determined using the right-hand rule.

u | sin qv F =
Where:
is the angle between velocity and magnetic field.
Right-hand-rule:
Long, straight Current:
Grasp the wire with your right hand so that your
thumb point in the direction of the current. The
curled fingers of that hand point the direction of
the magnetic field.
Current loop:
Grasp the loop so that the curled fingers of your
hand point in the direction of the current; the
thumb of that hand then point in the direction of
the magnetic field.
Magnetic force can only change the
direction of the particles motion, not
its sound.
1 T = 1 kg/C-s
The SI unit of magnetic field () is Tesla
(T).
A non-SI unit called gauss (G) is also
used.
10
4
G = 1 T
Sample Problem:
The velocity of an electron in a
magnetic field of 2T is 4 x 10
5
m/s
perpendicular to the field. Find the
force that acts on the charge.
Magnetic Force
Magnetic force on a current
Since current, by definition are moving charge,
current carrying conductors can also be moved
by magnetic field.
The magnetic force for a straight conductor
in a uniform electric field.
| IL F =
Where:
F = magnetic force (Newton)
I = current (ampere)
L = Length of the conductor inside
the magnetic field (meter)
= Magnetic field (Tesla)
u | sin IL F =
The direction of the magnetic force is
determined by right-hand-rule.
The magnitude of magnetic force is:

Where:
= is the angle between the wire and the magnetic field.
Sample Problem:
A wire 0.10 m long carrying a current of
2.0 A is at 30
0
angle with respect to the
magnetic field. If the magnetic field
strength is 0.20 T, what is the
magnitude of the force on the wire?
Magnetic field of Earth
Magnetic north pole is located somewhere in
the Greenland, near but not exactly in the
same location as geographic north pole.
Magnetic south pole is at its direct opposite.
Earth is the giant magnet that generates
magnetic field. It enables compasses to
work.
Earth magnetic north pole is actually the
south pole, where magnetic field
terminates, and the magnetic south pole is
actually the north pole from where the
magnetic field emanates.
Compasses:
Instrument used to find direction.
Composed of slender bar magnet or low
friction pivots.
Follow the magnetic field lines of the earth.
Point towards the geographic north pole.
Earth Magnetosphere
Region that contains a mix of electrically
charged particles.
Electric and magnetic phenomena
dominate rather than gravitational
phenomena.
Shield earth from the solar wind is called
bow shock.
Van Allen Radiation Belts
Traps high energy particles that leaked to
magnetosphere.
Regions of particularly high concentration
of charged particles.
Are responsible for the aurora (Northern
and Southern Lights).

Conductors with
Current
Conductors with Current
Electric current generate magnetic
field.
Hans Christian Oersted noticed that the
electric current can influence a
compass needle.
Oersed and Andre-Marie Ampere
shows that current carrying wires exert
force to one another.
Straight Conductor
The direction of the magnetic field in a
straight conductor can be determined
using the right-hand-rule.

I
Conductor
Single-Loop Conductor
The conductor maybe in the shape of
circle, ellipse or polygon.

The magnetic field lines direction
must be according to the right-hand-
rule with respect to the current.
I

The magnetic field vector at the center of
the loop adds-up as one big magnetic field
vector.
Solinoid
Conducting wire coiled in the shape of
helix.
Function like several adjacent single-
loop conductor.
Similar to the wire coiled around an
iron core (usually a nail) in an
electromagnet.

C
The magnetic field vectors add-up at
the center.

An ideal solenoid is a solenoid of infinite
length and uniform magnetic field inside the
coil.

A real solenoid is a solenoid of limit length.
Its magnetic field is uniform near the center
but not uniform near the ends.
Moving Charged
Particles
Moving Charged Particles
All magnetic fields are generated by charging
electric fields.









Moving charged particles generates electric field.
Currents generate electric field because it is made-
up of moving charge.

+
-
Positive charge : Use Right-Hand-Rule
Negative charge : Use Left-Hand-Rule
If a charge is moving relative to a point, the electric
field at that point due to the charge is changing. This
on-going change generates magnetic field.
Note:
Charging Electric field generates magnetic fields.
E
1
E
2
E
3
E
1
E
2
E
3
Calculating the Magnetic Field
Biot-Savart Law
Where:

o
= 4 x 10
-7
Tm/A = 1.26 x 10
-6
Tm/A

3
0
4 r
Idlxr
d
t

| =
r
d
I
dl
Amperes Law
enc
I dl
0
. | = }
r
I
dl
Different Conductor
Configurations
Long straight
conductor:

r
I
t

|
2
0
=
I

r
Long cylindrical conductor of radius R
Outside the conductor* Inside the conductor*

2
0
2 R
Ir
t

| =
r
I
t

|
2
0
=
R
r Outside
Inside
I
r
I
t
|
|
4
0
=
Circular loop of Radius r
Center of a circular arc with central angle (in
Radian)
I
r

Complete circular loop
r
I
2
0

| =
I
I
r
) ( 2
2 2
2
0
r z
Ir
+
=

|

Distance z away directly above or below the center
of circular loop.
z
r
I
Long solenoid (almost Ideal) with number of
turns (N ) per unit length.
Inside the solenoid and near the center





Outside the solenoid
nI
0
| =
0 = |
N
Sample Problem:

Straight conductor:
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field 6.1 m
below a power line in which there is a steady current
of 100 A?

Field along a solenoid:
A solenoid of length 30.0 cm and radius 2.0 cm is
closely winded with 200 turns of wire. The current in
the winding is 5.0 A. Compute the magnetic field
magnitude at a point near the center of the solenoid.
Parallel Current
The force between two parallel current I
a

and I
b
is given by:




Where:
L = Length of the conductors
d = distance between the conductors

d
L I I
F
b a
t

2
0
=
The force is attractive if the currents are
toward the same direction and repulsive if
toward opposite directions.
L
I
a
I
b
d
Sample Problem:
Parallel Currents
Two long parallel wires are separated by
distance of 8.0 cm. The current running
along these wires are equal in magnitude
but opposite direction.
a) What is the current along the wires if the
magnitude field halfway between them is
300.0 N?
b) What is the force between the wires if the
length of both of them is 4.0 m? Is this
force attractive or repulsive?
Magnetic Materials
Atoms are like tiny magnets. The
electrons form a microscopic loop.

Atoms are like tiny magnets. The electrons
form a microscopic loop.





Moving electrons generate magnetic field.
Hence, atoms are like small magnets.
Most objects do not generate magnetic field
despite being made-up of atoms because the
atoms are oriented randomly: the atoms
cancel each others magnetic field.
+
-
I
Types of Magnetic Materials
Paramagnetic

Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic
Assignment:
Research Types of magnetic materials
Computerized, Short Bond paper.
To be submitted next meeting.
Field Symmetry
Magnetic Flux defined
The magnetic flux (

) is the strength of an
electric field over an area in a field region.
Where:
= Magnetic field (Tesla, T)
A = cross-sectional area (m
2
)
= Angle
u | |
|
cos A A = = u
The term Magnetic flux density is
synonymous to magnetic field, defined as
the magnetic flux per unit of perpendicular
area
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
1 Wb = 1 T*m
2
N S
0
90 cos
0
= u
= u
|
|
|A
A
A
|
|
|
|
= u
= u 0 cos




A
A
A


u |
|
cos A = u
Conducting loop in a magnetic field
Induction
The process of producing current and emf by
changing magnetic field.

Induced current
The current produced by changing magnetic field.

Induced emf
The work done per unit change in producing
induced current.
Note:
Changing magnetic field generates electric field.
Law
of
Induction
Faradays Law
States that the induced emf in a close loop
equals the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux through the
loop.
t A
Au
=
|
c
Induced emf appears on the
conducting loop if any of the following
happens:
The magnetic field is changing.
The area of the loop within the magnetic
field is changing.
The conducting loop is rotating while
immersed to magnetic field.
Sample Problem:
A single loop of wire with an enclosed area
of 6.00 cm
2
is in a region of uniform
magnetic field, with the field perpendicular
to the plane of the loop. The magnetic field
is decreasing at a constant rate of 0.150
T/s.
a) What is the induced emf ?
b) If the loop has a resistance of 0.300 ohms what
is the current induced in the loop?
Lenzs Law
States that the induced current runs to
the direction in such a way that it
generates magnetic field to oppose the
changes in the magnetic flux that
induced the current.
Used in determining the direction of
induced current and induced emf.
S
N

S
N

S
N

ind

ind
I = 0
I
I
(A)
(B)
(C)
No motion
increasing in the loop decreasing in the loop
Problem Solving:
A rectangular inductor of unknown length
and width of 0.2 m moves at 12 m/s to the
right. It is oriented perpendicular to a
magnetic field of 0.4 T.
a) What is the induced emf in the circuit?
b) What is the direction of the induced emf?
c) If the resistance across the loop is 0.3 ohms,
What is the current?
Inductance
Tendency of an electrical circuit to
oppose the starting, stopping or
changing the current.
Its SI unit is henry (H):
1H = 1 Tm
2
/A
Inductor
Provides inductance in a circuit.
Produce uniform magnetic field.
The inductance L of an inductor with
number of turns N is given by:
I
N
L
|
u
=
Problem Solving:
A current of 5.0 mA passess
through the solenoid inductor
with 400 turns and inductance of
8.0 mH. What is the magnetic flux
through the coil?
Self-inductance happens when two
adjacent turns of a solenoid inductor
induced one another to changing
electric current.
The result of this is the intended
function of the inductor:
to resist changes in current.
Self-inductance
I
I
CURRENT
DECREASING
CURRENT
INCREASING

L
The self-induced emf is the emf that arises due
to the turns in the inductor inducing one
another: Self induced emf opposes the current.
The self-induced emf can be solved
using the formula:

t
I
L
L
A
A
= c
The inductance does not oppose the current
itself, only the change in current. It opposes both
increase and decrease in current.
Inductance
L
Inductor
If the current is increasing
then the voltage
Opposing that
Change is created
By the magnetic
Field of the coil.
Mutual-Inductance (M)
Proportionality between the emf generated in
a coil to the change in current in the other
coil which produces it.
Arises when to coils in close proximity
induces emf to one another.
2
1
1
2
12 21
12 21
I
N
I
N
M
M M M
| |
u
=
u
=
= =
Notation: the subscript that the stand for the inducing
coil comes second and the subscript that stands for
the coil being induced comes first.
Equation of induced emf:
21
is the emf induced in coil
2 due to change in current in coil 1 and
12
is the emf
induced in coil 1 cue to change in current in coil 2.
t
I
M
t
I
M
A
A
=
A
A
=
2
12 12
1
21 21
c
c
Sample Problem:
Two single-turn coils are fixed in location
such that they can induced emf to one
another.
a) When the first coil has no current and the
current in the second coil increases at rate of
15.0 A/s, the emf in the first coil is 25.0 mV.
What is their mutual inductance?
b) When the second coil has no current and the
first coil has current of 3.60 A, What is the flux
linkage in the second coil?
Alternating Current
Alternating current (ac)

The current is not constant, but varies
sinusoidally with time.

I
t
Advantages over direct current (dc)

Easier than transmit since charge carriers
are not required to travel over long
distance.
Enables transformers to work by utilizing
Faradays Law of induction.
More readily adaptable to rotating
machineries such as generators and
electric motors.
Alternating Current Generator

The emf varies sinusoidally with time:






Driving frequency f
d
:
) sin( t
d m
e c c =
d d
f t e 2 =
Where:
W
d
= Angle of frequency of the emf
t = time

m
= amplitude of the emf
The current I varies sinusoidally with time:
) sin( | e = t I I
d m
Oscillating Circuit
Resistive Load
The phase constant is zero.


Time-varying voltage:




Where:
V
R
= voltage across the resistor
V
Rm
= amplitude of the voltage
Time-varying current:



Where:
I
R
= current through the resistor
I
Rm
= amplitude of the current

Relation of amplitude of current and voltage:

) sin( t V V
d Rm R
e =
R
I
I

) sin( t I I
d Rm R
e =
R I V
Rm Rm
=
0 = |
Capacitive Load
The phase constant is


Time-varying voltage


Where:
Vc = voltage across the Capacitor
Vc
m
= amplitude of the voltage
Time-varying current:


Where:
I c

= current through the Capacitor
I c
m
= amplitude of the current


) sin( t V V
d Cm C
e =
C
I
I

2
90
0
t
| = =
) 90 sin(
0
= t I I
d Cm C
e
Relation of amplitude of current and voltage:



The Quantity X
C
is called capacitive reactance:





The unit of reactance is ohms ()
C
X
d
C
e
1
=
C Cm Cm
X I V =
Inductive Load
The phase constant is:




Time-varying voltage



Where:
V
L
= voltage across the inductor
V
Lm
= amplitude of the voltage
Time-varying current:



Where:
I
L
= current through the inductor
I
Lm
= amplitude of the current

) sin( t V V
d Lm L
e =
) 90 sin(
0
+ = t I I
d Lm L
e
2
90
0
t
| = =
I
I

L
Relation of amplitude of current and voltage:



The Quantity X
L
is called inductance reactance:





The unit of reactance is ohms ()
L Lm Lm
X I V =
L X
d L
e =
RLC Series Circuit
The Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor are
connected in series with ac emf device.

L
R
C
I
I
I I
Voltage and current in series circuit:




Relation of the amplitudes of voltage and current:
L C R
L C R
V V V
I I I I
+ + =
= = =
c
Z I
m
= c
The quantity is called Impedance (Z):



The unit of reactance is ohms ().
The phase constant can be solved using the
equation:
2 2
) (
C L
X X R Z + =
R
X X
C L

= | tan
Sample Problem:
A 160 resistor, 15.0F capacitor and 230 mH
inductor are connected to form RLC circuit with
an ac generator whose conducting loop rotates at
60.0 full rotation per second and with emf
amplitude of 36.0 V.
Find:
a) The impedance of the circuit.
b) The current flowing through the circuit.
c) The phase constant
Transformer
A device used to change the voltage
and current levels in an AC circuit.

Step-up transformer: V
out
> V
in
Step-down transformer: V
in
> V
out
input
output
Primary winding
Secondary winding
core
Magnetic flux
Transformer
Characteristic of an Ideal
Transformer
Has two coil or windings, electrically
insulated from each other but wound on the
same core.
Core typically made-up of material with large
relative permeability such as iron.
Primary coil (input) winding to which power
supply is received.
Secondary coil (output) winding to which power
is delivered.
Resistance is negligible.
Magnetic field is confined to the iron core.
Transformation of voltage and
current
The induced emf in primary,
1
, and secondary
coil,
2
are:





We can combine the equation above as:


t
N
t
N
A
Au
=
A
Au
=
|
|
c
c
2 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
N
N
=
c
c
Terminal voltage of primary and secondary coil:





Step-up transformer,
2
>
1
and N
2
> N
1
Step-down transformer,
1
>
2
and N
1
> N
2
2
1
2
1
N
N
V
V
=
Power of Transformer:



If we place a resistance, R, to complete the
circuit in the secondary coil:
2 2 1 1
V I V I P = =
2
1
2
1
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
N
R
I
V
Problem Solving:
A transformer has 100 turns on its
primary coil and 300 turns on the
secondary coil. If the primary voltage is
110.0 V and primary current is 5.00 A.
What are the secondary voltage and
current?
Nature of
Waves
Waves
A disturbance that travels through a material
medium.
Carries energy.
Can transfer energy from one place to
another without actual motion of an object or
particle.
Some waves can travel through vacuum and
do not require a material medium;
Example is Light
Types of Waves
Transverse wave
The motion of the particles at the
moment the disturbance passes
through is perpendicular to the
propagation of the wave.
Example: Light
Wave propagation
Wave propagation
Wave propagation
Particle motion
Particle motion
Particle motion
Undisturbed position
Undisturbed position
Undisturbed position
Longitudinal Wave
The motion of the particles at the
moment the disturbance passes
through is linear to the propagation
of the wave.
Example: Sound
Wave propagation
Wave propagation
Wave propagation
Particle motion
Particle motion
Particle motion
Undisturbed position
Undisturbed position
Undisturbed position
Properties of Wave
Wavelength
The distance between two adjacent
particles or points that behave in the
same manner.
The unit is meter (m).
Denoted by Greek letter (lamda )
Period
The time it takes for one
complete wavelength to
pass through a certain
point.
The unit is second (s).
Denoted as capital T.


f
T
1
=
Frequency
The number of wave
passing through a certain
point per unit time.
The unit is per second or
hertz (/s or s
-1
)
Reciprocal of Period (T)
Denoted by small letter f.
T
f
1
=
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of
particle due to disturbance before
returning to its undisturbed position.
The unit is meter (m).
Denoted by capital letter A.
Speed
Distance traveled by the
disturbance per unit of
time.
The Unit is meter per
second (m/s).
Denoted by small letter v.
t
v

=


A
A
crest
trough
f
T
1
=
t
v

=
Quantity Symbol unit relation
Wavelength Meter (m)


Period T Second (s)
frequency f /s, s
-1
Hertz (Hz)
amplitude A Meter (m)
speed v m/s
T
f
1
=
f v =
Problem Solving:
The frequency of a wave traveling
across the string is 0.167 Hz and its
wavelength is 9.00 cm. What is the
period and speed of the wave?
Behavior of Wave
Refraction
It is the change in the waves direction as it crosses
the boundaries between two medium
Incident
Refracted
Medium 1 Medium 2
Reflection
It is the change in the waves direction without
crossing to the adjacent medium.
Incident
Reflected
Medium 1 Medium 2
Interference
It is the combination of two or more
waves as they pass through the same
location at the same time.
Two kinds of Interference
Constructive interference
It happens when the waves passing through
the same location are in-phase, resulting to a
combined disturbance with higher amplitude.

Destructive interference
It happens when the waves passing through
the same location are out-phase, resulting to a
cancelled disturbance with lower or zero
amplitude.

Diffraction
It is the spreading of wave after it passed through a
small slit.
Each point at the wavefront acts as tiny source of
smaller waves called wavelets. The interference among
wavelets keep wave in shape.
However, If the slit is small enough, some of the
wavelets will not be able to pass through; with no
interference, the wavelets from one point will be able to
propagate.
wavefronts
slit
obstacle
Diffracted wave
Electromagnetic
Wave
Changing electric field creates magnetic
field.
Changing magnetic filed creates electric
filed.

Electromagnetic waves are disturbance
produced by propagating electric and
magnetic fields.
Speed in a vacuum:
(299,792,458 m/s or 3.00 x 10
8
m/s)
Examples:
Light
Infrared rays
Ultraviolet rays
Radio waves
rays

Light is the electromagnetic wave that is
visible to the eyes, with wavelengths between
4 x10
-7
m and 7 x10
-7
m and frequencies
between 7 x 10
14
hertz and 4 x10
14
hertz.
Electric field
Speed in a vacuum
s m x
E
c / 10 00 . 3
1
8
0 0
= = =
c
|
Where:
c= speed of the electromagnetic waves (m/s)
E=electric field (V/m)
=magnetic field (Weber/m
2
)

o
=permitivity constant

o
=permeability constant
Problem Solving:
At a particular time the magnetic field
intensity in electromagnetic wave is 2
x10
-10
Wb/m
2
. Calculate the
magnitude of the electric field
intensity.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Assignment:
Computerized, Short bond paper
Research work
Gamma Rays
X-rays
Ultraviolet rays
Visible Light
Infrared
Radio wave
Wavelength and frequency
The frequency and wavelength of
electromagnetic (EM) wave are inversely
proportional.

c
f =
Where:
f = frequency of the wave (Hz)
c = speed of the EM wave in a vacuum
=wavelength (m)
Problem Solving:
What is the range of the wavelength of
the visible light?
(see Electromagnetic spectrum table)
Visible Light
Visible Light
Form of electromagnetic radiation that our
eyes detect.
Wavelength ranging from 400 to 760 nm.
People are able to see an object ligth
enters the eyes.
Represented as:
Ray
a thin beam of light that travel in a straight line.
Wavefront
It is the line (not necessarily straight) or surface
connecting all the light that left a source at the same
time.
Can be reflected and refracted.
Optics
Branch of electromagnetism that deals
with the nature, properties and behavior of
light.
Two branches:
Geometric Optics
Describes light propagation in terms of rays.
Physical Optics
Treat light propagation as a wave phenomenon
rather than a ray phenomenon.
Reflection of Light
The angle of incident (
i
) is equal to the
angle of reflection (
r
)
r i
u u =

i
= 0

r
= 0

Mirror A
The light is parallel to
The plane of mirror.
No Reflection.
Mirror B
Light is reflected
at an angle.

i
=
r
A
B
Mirror C
Incident and reflected
Light are both
perpendicular
To the plane of mirror.

i
-
r
=0
C
Refraction of Light
The refraction of light is governed by
Snells Law:
r r i i
n n u u sin sin =
Where:

i
= angle of incident ray

r
= angle of refraction ray
n
i
& n
r
= indices of refraction
AIR
WATER
Incident ray
Refracted ray

r
r water i air
n n u u sin sin =
Index of refraction (n)
The ratio of lights speed in a vacuum and
lights speed in that material.
Property of the material has no unit.
v
c
n =
Where:
c = 3.00 x10
8
m/s
light in vacuum.
v = speed of light in
the medium.
Sample Problem:
A light beam crosses from the vacuum
to water with incident beam angle of
25.0
0
. If the index of refraction of
vacuum is 1 and that of water is 1.33,
what is the angle of refracted light
beam?
Mirrors
Surface that reflects so much light that
they formed images.
Made of polish metal (silver or copper) or
glass with silver colored coating.
Two kinds of mirror:
Plane mirror
Flat surface and the reflected parallel
light rays remain parallel.
Plane mirror
Spherical mirror
Its surface form a part of the surface of
the sphere:
Concave mirror focuses reflected rays.
Convex mirror scatters reflected rays.
Concave mirror
Convex mirror
Principal
Axis
Principal
Axis
Parts of a mirror
Principal axis
An imaginary line passing through the
center of the sphere and passing through
the exact center of the mirror.

Center of Curvature (C)
The point in the center of the sphere from
which the mirror was sliced.
Vertex (V)
The point on the mirrors surface where the
principal axis meets the mirror.
The geometric center of the mirror.

Focal point (F)
A point between the vertex and the center of the
curvature.
In concave mirrors, this is the point where the
reflected rays intersect.
In convex mirror, this is the point from where the
reflected ray apparently originates.
Radius of the curvature (R)
Distance from the vertex to the center of the
curvature.
The radius of the sphere from which the mirror
was cut.
Focal Length (f)
The distance from the mirror to the focal point.
One-half the radius of the curvature.
For concave mirrors:


For convex mirrors:
2
R
f =
2
R
f =
Problem Solving:
Light from the distance is collected
by a concave mirror. How far from the
mirror do the light rays converge if
the radius of curvature of the mirror
is 200 cm.?
Mirrors Image Formation
In Plane mirror
In order to see the image of an object in a
mirror:
You must view at the image;
When you view at the image, light will come to
your eyes along that line of sight.
The image location is located at that
position where observers are viewing the
image of an object. It is the location behind
the mirror where all the light appears to
diverge from.

An image is formed because light
emanates from the object in a variety of
directions.

Some of this light reaches the mirror and
reflects off the mirror accordingly to the
law of reflection.


In Concave mirror
There are two types of image:
Real image
Light passes through the images
location.
Its formed when p > f
Virtual image
Light does not pass through the
images location.
Its formed when p < f
In Convex mirror

The image is always virtual.
V
Mirror
C F
For Concave Mirror
Principal axis
R
f
Object

V
Mirror
C F
For Convex Mirror
Principal axis
f
Object
Mirror Equation
Where:
f = focal length
p = Object distance
Distance from the object
to the mirror.
q = Image distance
Distance from the image
to the mirror.
m = Magnification of the mirror
y = size of the object
y = size of the image
q p f
1 1 1
+ =
p
q
y
y
m

= =
'
V
Mirror
C
For Concave Mirror
Principal axis
p
f
Object
q
F
Image
Ray Diagram Method (RDM)
For Concave mirror:
First Ray Parallel to the axis, reflects to
the mirror, then passing through focal
point.
Second Ray Passing through the focal
point, reflect to the mirror, then parallel to
the axis.
Third Ray Passing through center of
curvature, then bounce back.
V
Mirror
C
Principal axis
Y
F
Image
RDM
1
st
Ray
Object
Concave Mirror
Problem Solving:
A 3.0 cm tall light bulb is placed a
distance of 40 cm from a concave
mirror having a focal length of
10.2 cm. Determine the image
distance.
LENSES
It is an optical system with two
refracting surfaces.
Thin Lens
Has two spherical surfaces close enough
so its thickness can be neglected.

Types of Thin lens
Converging Lens
Diverging Lens
Converging Lens
Different kinds of converging lens:
Meniscus Piano-convex
Double-convex
Diverging Lens
Different kinds of diverging lens:
Meniscus Piano-concave
Double-concave
Parts of Lenses
Optic axis
The central horizontal line defined by the
centers of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces.
Focal points (F
1
and F
2
)
Focal Length (f)
Distance between a focal point and the
center of the lens
The two focal lengths are always equal for
a thin lens
Image Formation by thin lenses

Real image are located on the side of the
lens opposite that of the object.

Virtual images are located on the same
side of the lens as the object
F
1
F
2
f f
Optic axis
Converging lens
When a beam of parallel rays pass through the lens,
the rays converge at one focal point.
Its focal length is defined to be positive.
F
2
F
1
f f
F
2
F
1
f f
Optic axis
Optic axis
Converging lens can form either real or
virtual image.
Real image if the distance of the object
from the center of the lens is greater
than the focal length (p>f).
Virtual image if the distance of the
object from the center of the lens is
less than the focal length (p<f).
Image formation by Thin Lenses
Real Image
F
1
F
2
Object
Image
f
f
p q
Optic axis
Virtual Image
F
1
Object
F
2
f f
Image
p
q
Optic axis
F
1
F
2
f f
Optic axis
Diverging lens
When a beam of parallel rays are incident on this
lens, the rays diverge after refraction.
Its focal length is defined to be negative.
F
2
F
1
f f
F
2 F
1
f f
Optic axis
Optic axis
Image formation by Thin Lenses
F
1
F
2
Object
Image
f
f
p
q
The image formed by a diverging lens is always virtual.
Optic axis
Lens Equation
q p f
1 1 1
=
p
q
m =
Thin Lens equation:
Lateral magnification:
Problem Solving:
A converging lens has a focal
length of 12.0 cm for an object
20.0 cm to the left of the lens,
Determined:
a) The image position
b) The image magnification
Lenses and Mirror
Assignment:
Computerized, Short bond paper
Research work
The Eye
The Camera
The Magnifying Glass
The Telescope (Galileo)
The Microscope