Electricity and Electronics - 1

PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICITY
THEORY, PRACTICE AND
SOLVED AND PROPOSED EXERCISES
 Albeiro Patiño Builes

Electricity and Electronics - 1

PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICITY
THEORY, PRACTICE AND
SOLVED AND PROPOSED EXERCISES

Science and Technology

Collection Science and Technology

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY
© Albeiro Patiño Builes, 2023
© Xalambo Editorial, 2023

1st edition: April 2023

 Editorial Direction: Albeiro Patiño Builes
Technical Review and Layout: David Esteban Londoño Patiño
Cover design: David Esteban Londoño Patiño
Translation: Lara Alonso Corona
Edited in Medellín, Colombia
Xalambo Editorial
www.xalambo.com
Tel.: (+57) 302 827 35 13

All rights reserved. Under the sanctions established by law, it is strictly prohibited,
without the written authorization of the
copyright holders, the total or partial reproduction of this work
by any means or procedure, including reprography and
computer processing.

«If you want to find the secrets of the

universe, think in terms of energy,
frequency and vibration».
Nikola Tesla
 INDEX
CHAPTER 1
ELECTRICITY BASICS
Electricity by friction
Static electricity and dynamic electricity
Electronic theory
The atom
The electronic configuration
Conductors, insulators and semiconductors
Conductors
Semiconductors
Insulators
REVIEW
EXERCISES
RESEARCH
CHAPTER 2
BASIC CONCEPTS
Energy and energy transfer
Work
Energy
Power
Electric charge
Coulomb’s Law
Electric current
Real and conventional sense of the electrical current
Conduction mechanism in metals
Direct current and alternating current
Difference in potential, voltage, or tension
Analogy for electric current and voltage
Electric power
Electric energy
REVIEW
EXERCISES
RESEARCH
CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND
BASIC LAWS
 Electrical circuit
Active elements
Passive elements
Batteries and accumulators
Analogy for a battery
Independent voltage and current sources
Analogy
Dependent or controlled sources
Resistance and the Laws of Ohm, Pouillet and de Joule
Ideal resistances
Real resistances
Calculating the resistance from the geometrical shape of the conductor
Analogy and energy of resistance
Influence of temperature on resistance
Conductance and conductivity
Variable Resistances
Analogy for variable resistances
Summary of formulas
Inductance
Ideal Inductances
Real inductances
Analogy and energy of the inductance
Capacitance
Ideal capacitors
Real capacitors or condensers
Analogy of energy and capacitance
Calculating capacity from the geometrical shape
Characteristics and applications of capacitors
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors
Tantalum Electrical Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors
Paper and plastic capacitors
Mica and glass capacitors
The protoboard
Protoboard use
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff's Law of Currents (KLC)
Kirchhoff's Law of Voltages (KLV)
REVIEW
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 4
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Analogue display instruments
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Ohmmeter
Digital display instruments
The oscilloscope
Connecting the measuring instruments
Precautions
Comparative characteristics of analogue and digital measuring
instruments
Characteristics that measuring instruments must have
Accuracy or faithfulness
Precision
Sensitivity
Speed of display
Scope
REVIEW
CHAPTER 5
RESISTIVE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Equivalent resistance
Connections in series
Equivalent resistance in series
Parallel connections
Equivalent resistance in parallel
Equivalent conductance
Parallel-serial connections
Equivalent capacity and equivalent inductance
Delta to Star Conversion ( ) and Star to Delta ( )
Voltage and current dividers
Voltage dividers
Current divider
Mesh analysis
Determinants
Node analysis
REVIEW
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 6
ACADEMIC SUPPORT GUIDE
PRACTICE N°1
RESISTANCE IDENTIFICATION
PRACTICE N°2
RESISTANCE CHARACTERIZATION
PRACTICE N°3
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCES
PRACTICE N°4
HANDLING OF D.C. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
PRACTICE N°5
HANDLING OF A.C. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
PRACTICE N°6
MANAGING THE OSCILLOSCOPE
PRACTICE N°7
KIRCHHOFF LAWS
PRACTICE N°8
RLC CIRCUITS
PRACTICE N°9
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDERS
GLOSSARY
INDEX OF FIGURES
INDEX OF TABLES
ALBEIRO PATIÑO BUILES
 Chapter 1
ELECTRICITY BASICS

Electricity by friction
Well known is the experiment of combing dry hair and then moving the
comb closer to small pieces of paper. We observe how the little
pieces of paper are attracted by the comb, although once in contact
with it they come off again; in this case it is said that the comb has
been electrified by rubbing, and the phenomenon is known as
triboelectricity.
The same effect is observed when amber (from the Greek
elektro), is rubbed with rabbit skin. Hence the name "electrical
phenomena". It is also observed in glass when it is rubbed with silk.
When a piece of cork is brought close to the previously rubbed
element, it is seen that the cork is attracted, then repelled. The
elements have been electrified by friction.
Based on experiments like these we concluded, within traditional
theory, that there are two kinds of electricity: vitreous or positive,
which is produced in glass when it is rubbed with silk; and resinous or
negative, which is produced in amber when it is rubbed with a skin.
Now, if we bring an electrified glass rod close to a suspended cork
ball, it is attracted, Figure 1.1(a); if we then bring an amber bar
closer, we see that it is also attracted, Figure 1.1(b); but if we
simultaneously bring the glass and the amber closer together, we see
that there is no attraction, indicating that the actions of glass and
amber tend to oppose and cancel each other out, Figure 1.1(c).
 Figure 1-1. Phenomenon of attraction and repulsion.

Laws such as the following were then established and are

represented in Figure 1.2.:

1. «Through friction, the two bodies are always electrified

simultaneously, with opposite electricity».
2. «Electricity of the same name, it's repelled; electricity of
the opposite name is attracted».

Figure 1-2. Positive and negative charges that bodies acquire when they are rubbed.

Likewise, the well-known Coulomb Law was proposed, which we

will detail later, and which we will discuss below.
«The forces exerted between two particular electrical charges are
directly proportional to their amounts of electricity and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance separating them».

Static electricity and dynamic electricity

In the conceptualization of electric charge there are two cases to
differentiate: the electric charge that is applied at a certain point, at
rest; and that which is circulating through a defined closed path. The
first is called static or electrostatic electricity, and the second
dynamic or electrodynamic electricity.
Each of these branches has a variety of applications, all of which
are of immense importance. However, electrostatics, and in particular
friction electricity, has found its main application in nuclear physics
labs, while electrodynamics has become the backbone of all electrical
and electronic phenomena with its precise purposes of energy
generation, transmission, reception and transformation.

Electronic theory
In short, electronic theory hypothesizes that all matter is electricity;
that is, that all elements are made up of atoms, which in turn are
composed mainly of two classes of extremely small particles of
matter: electrons and protons.

The atom
This, in its most elemental form, is formed by the nucleus and the
periphery. Inside the nucleus are the neutrons, which have no charge,
and the protons, which have a positive electrical charge; around the
periphery are the electrons, with a negative electrical charge and a
mass that is 1840 times greater than that of the protons. In table 1.1.
the charge and mass of these three particles are indicated.
Table 1-1. Atomic particles.
CHARGE (COULOMB)
PARTICLE MASS (Kg)
(COULOMB)
Electron 1.6 x 10-19 9.11 x 10-31
Proton 1.6 x 10-19 1.67 x 10-27
Neutron 0 1.67 10-27
 Electrons, considered the natural unit of charge, are bound to the
atom by electrical forces, and their number and arrangement differs
in different substances, so that in some materials the electrons are
strongly restrained by these forces, and in others, the electrons
housed in the outermost part of the atom can be easily released,
circulating freely from atom to atom.
In the first case it is about insulating materials, whose electrons
are firmly bound, in the second case it is about conductors, with their
free external electrons.

The electronic configuration

In Figure 1.3, we can see that the electrons are arranged in circles
(energy levels and sub-levels) around the nucleus, which correspond
to spherical layers representative of the electron orbits; each layer
can contain a maximum number of elements, and when the layer is
fully occupied, the additional electrons pass to another upper layer of
greater radius.

Figure 1-3. Atomic constitution of hydrogen, helium and beryllium.

The number of electrons on each level and sublevel can be

determined from Figure 1.5. In this, the coefficients correspond to the
levels (circles) of energy, the literals are sublevels of energy and are
an aid for the correct arrangement of the electrons in the different
layers; and the superscripts indicate the maximum number of
electrons in each sublevel. The arrows indicate the direction to follow
in the disposition.
 Figure 1-4. Energy levels and sub-levels.

Although the procedure falls into the field of chemistry, of particular

interest to electricians and electronics engineers is the determination
of the number of electrons falling into the last energy level, which are
called valence electrons.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Copper (Cu) has an atomic number Z of 29; Silicon (Si) and oxygen
(O), have atomic numbers of 14 and 8, respectively. If the atomic
number is the total number of electrons of each element, through the
electronic configuration determine the valence electrons of each.

SOLUTION
Using Figure 1.5. and the data provided in the problem statement, we
obtain the following configurations:

For Copper (Cu)

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d
9

The last level is 4, and it houses 2 electrons. That is, copper has 2
valence electrons.
 For Silicon (Si)

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

The last level is 3; as there are two sub-levels and each allows 2
electrons, the number of valence electrons for silicon is 4.

For Oxygen (O)

1s2 2s2 2p4

We can observe that the last level is 2, and that in the s sublevel 2
electrons are housed while in the p sublevel 4 electrons are housed.
In total there are 6, so 6 is the number of valence electrons for
oxygen.

Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

Therefore, it is evident that some elements will have their energy
levels complete, while in others there will be unoccupied places; and
it is this difference which primarily influences the ease with which an
electric current can circulate through a given material, for if the outer
layer is complete it is difficult for the atom to lose or gain electrons; if,
on the other hand, there is an empty place in it, an electron can jump
to it, or another electron can leave the layer much more easily.
In general, elements that have four valence electrons are called
semiconductors, those that have less than four valence electrons are
called conductors, and those that have more than four electrons in
their last level are called insulators or dielectrics.
Summarizing.
Conductive bodies have free electrons which can move through
their mass. In dielectrics this is not possible without great difficulty.
The vast majority of electrical phenomena are due to the mobility of
electrons or negative charges; thus, positively charged bodies are
those that have lost electrons and negatively charged ones are those
that have gained electrons.

Conductors
They are all materials that have the property of allowing the
passage of an electric current and are characterized because the
electrons of the outer orbits can be easily detached from the atom.
Obviously, the ease of conduction is not the same for all
conductive materials, and varies according to a variety of factors,
such as temperature.
At exceptionally low temperatures (between -268oC and
-273.15oC, which is absolute zero) many metals undergo a sudden
change in their conductive characteristics, becoming perfect
conductors, i.e., they present almost negligible opposition to the
passage of a current. This phenomenon is called superconductivity,
and is presented by elements such as aluminum, tin, mercury and
lead.

Semiconductors
Other materials, for example some oxides and silicon, present
particular characteristics, which do not allow to classify them within
the conductors, but neither within the insulators. Their characteristics
mediate between these two extremes, so they are known as
"Semiconductors". They are of immense importance as an essential
component of transistors, thyristors, rectifiers, thermistors and other
devices for electronic use.
Table 1-2. Conductor, semiconductor and insulator materials.
CONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTORS INSULATORS
Copper Silicon Oil
Aluminum Germanium Bakelite
 Silver Manganese oxide Ceramic
Gold Zinc oxide Rubber
Iron Nickel oxide Mica
Lead Titanium oxide Paraffin
Platinum Iron oxide Polyethylene
Nickel Magnesium oxide Glass

Insulators
These are materials that have a remarkably exalted position as the
current passes through. They are also known as dielectrics and are
characterized because the electrons of the outer orbits are firmly
bound in the atom.
REVIEW
Concepts
Define or discuss the following:
☐ Triboelectricity.
☐ Electrostatics and electrodynamics.
☐ Electronic theory.
☐ The atom.
☐ Electronic configuration.
☐ Energy level and sub-level.
☐ Conductor, semiconductor, insulator.

EXERCISES
1.1 Perform the electronic configuration for the following items:

a.
Carbon (Z = 6)
b.
Iron (Z = 26)
c.
Germanium (Z = 32)

1.2 How many valence electrons does aluminum have?

(Z = 13).
1.3 Determine whether the following elements are conductors,
semiconductors or dielectrics:

a.
Sodium (Z = 11)
b.
Germanium (Z = 32)
c.
Chlorine (Z = 17)
 d.
Titanium (Z = 22)

1.4 How many energy levels does the Xenon have?

(Z = 54)
RESEARCH
1.1 What is electromagnetic induction?
1.2 How can electromagnetic induction charge a body?
1.3 Why is induction dangerous for electronic devices and computer
components?
 Chapter 2
BASIC CONCEPTS

Energy and energy transfer

The main objective of the study of electrical phenomena and their
consequent manipulation is «the performance of work by delivering
energy to the right place, in the right form, and with sufficient power
for a variety of purposes».
The general content of the previous sentence can be obtained by
considering the terms Work, Energy and Power, as used in common
language.
However, these terms, so basic in electricity, must be taken in their
most precise sense, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Work
«Work» is done when something moves against an opposing force;
for example, when a weight is lifted against gravity or when the force
of inertia is overcome, and something is set in motion. Quantitatively,
the work is obtained by multiplying the force applied and the distance
over which the force moves. This is:

(2.
1)
Where: ​ ​W = Work.
F = Force.
d = Distance.
In the International System, which is based on the meter for length,
the kilogram for mass and the second for time, the unit of work is the
Joule (J).

EXAMPLE 2.1
A force of 4 Newtons acts over a distance of 3 meters. Determine
the work done.

SOLUTION
With F = 4N y d = 3m, we replace in the equation (2.1), and we get:

Energy
«Energy» is the capacity to do work.
A general principle applicable to all physical systems is the
«Energy Conservation Principle», which states that energy is neither
created nor destroyed; it is only transformed into heat, light or sound;
it can be mechanical energy of position or movement, it can be stored
in a battery or in a spring, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
A simple and well-known case is that of a hydroelectric plant; the
water is moved through large pipes from a reservoir, so that the
energy produced is due to the fall of the water mass from one point
to another, with the difference in H levels (Figure 2.1).
In summary, the complete energy transformation cycle can be
outlined as follows.

Figure 2-1. Energy transfer at a hydroelectric plant.

Power
«Power» is the reason energy is delivered over time in the MKS
system, power is measured in watts (w).
However, from the definition of power, if W is the work performed
or the energy consumed or delivered in time t, the power measured
for that period is:
(2.
2)
Where: ​ ​P = Power.
W = Work.
t = Time.

EXAMPLE 2.2
A 5-watt source works for 2 hours continuously feeding a light load.
Determine the power supplied by the source.

SOLUTION
Clearing from the equation (2.2), we get that the expression for
energy is:

Replacing in this formula the values given in the problem we arrive

at:

Due to the intimate relationship that exists between power and

energy, we often find that the latter is expressed in units such as
watts - seconds or kilowatts - hours. (1 kWh = 3.6 (106) W- s). One
Watt - second is the same as one Joule.
Expressing the value obtained in kWh, we find that the energy
supplied by the source is:
 How many W-s does this equal?

Electric charge
The most elementary electrical quantity is the electrical charge or
amount of electricity. We can name it, and even see a wire which is
conducting it, but it is impossible to visualize it in itself, separated
from the particle or the object. In general, a knowledge of electric
charges and electricity can only be achieved by studying their effects.
Electrical charges are arbitrarily called «Positive» and «Negative».
So, for example, the electron is a negative charge. An electrically
neutral body has equal positive and negative electrical charge. A
negative electrical charge means an excess of electrons. The charge
is represented by a letter Q (constant charge) or q (time-varying
charge) and is usually measured in Coulombs (C), unit of the MKS.
The charge of an electron is -1.6x10-19C (See table 1.1), and to
form an amount of electricity equal to 1 Coulomb you need 6.3 x 10-18
electrons.

EXAMPLE 2.3
Find the charge in Coulombs represented by:
(a) 7 electrons.
(b) 15 protons.

SOLUTION
a. If an electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C, a simple rule of
thumb allows us to calculate the charge of 7 electrons.
 b. The only difference between the charge of an electron and
that of a proton is that the charge of the latter is positive. So,
if a proton has a charge of +1.6 x 1019 C, the charge of 15
protons will be:

A rather significant effect of an electric charge is to be able to

produce a force. Already in the previous chapter it was mentioned
that, specifically, a charge repels others of the same sign and
attracts other charges of opposite sign. For example, any charge that
is attracted by an electron will most likely be a proton.

Coulomb’s Law
The magnitude of the force between two charged bodies is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. That is, the F force
between two charged bodies Q1 and Q2 is given by:

(2.
3)

Where d is the distance between the charges and K is a constant

that depends on the units used and the environment surrounding the
charges. K is often called the «Dielectric constant». Table 2.1 lists the
dielectric constant of some substances.
Table 2-1. Dielectric constant.
(T = 20°C; Atmospheric pressure; f < 1MHz)
Type of dielectric k
Air 1.0059
Amber 2.9
Asphalt 2.7
 (T = 20°C; Atmospheric pressure; f < 1MHz)
Type of dielectric k
Bakelite 6 (3 ½ to 8 ½)
Beeswax 2.7
Celluloid 6.2
Ceramic 5 ½ x 10­3 (4k a 7k)
Distilled water 78
Ebonite 2.8
Ethyl 26
Glass (Windows) 6
Glycerin 56
Mica 5 (6 a 7 ½)
Milar 3
Paper 2.5 (2 a 4)
Paraffin wax 4 (3 a 5)
Petroleum 4 (2 a 6)
Polyethylene 2.3
Polystyrene 2.6
Porcelain 6.5 (6 a 7 ½)
Quartz 3.8
Pyrex (Glass) 4.8
Rubber 3 (2 a 3 ½)
Slate 6.8
Soil 2.9
Teflon 2
Vacuum 1.0
Vaseline 2.2
Water 81
Wood 5.5 (2 ½ to 8 ½)

EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine:

a. The force with which a positive charge of 20C and a negative

charge of 80C, separated by 0.05m, are attracted in a
vacuum.
 b. The force with which two positive charges of 5 and 8C
separated by 2m are repelled in a vacuum.

SOLUTION
a. Where Q1 = +20C = -80C, the distance between the loads
is d = 0.05m and the vacuum constant, according to Table
2.1 is 1.0. Replacing these values in the equation (2.3) we
have:

b. If Q1 = 5C, Q2 = 8C and d = 2m, we replace these values in

equation (2.3) and arrive at:

Electric current
In our study we are more interested in charges in motion than in
charges at rest, due to the transfer of energy that can occur in them.
We define electrical current as the flow of charges through a
section of conductive material in a given period of time.
Let us imagine that we are at a specific point in a circuit and that
we see Q coulombs passing through it every t seconds.
Quantitatively, and faithfully following the definition given above, we
can calculate the electric current as:

(2.
4)
 In the case that the charges are variable in time, then the
expression will be:

(2.
5)

Note that in equation (2.5) all the letters are lowercase. In general,
whenever we refer to values that change over time, we will denote
them with lower case, while constant values will be denoted with
upper case, as in equation (2.4).
In the International System (IS) or (MKS), the current
measurement is the ampere (A). One ampere is equal to a charge
flow of one coulomb per second.

EXAMPLE 2.5
If 200C pass through a given point on a conductor in 640ms,
determine the circulating current.

SOLUTION
It can be seen that the values are constant over time. Then, replacing
the values given in equation (2.4), we obtain:

That is:

EXAMPLE 2.6
At a given instant 650*1020 electrons pass through a point on a
conductor. What is the value of the current in that interval?

SOLUTION
First of all, we must convert the charge flows to Coulombs, so:
 Similarly,

And we replace these values in equation (2.5), with , we

have:

Real and conventional sense of the

electrical current
According to the electronic theory, the direction of the electric
current is that in which the electrons or negatively charged particles
move, as shown in figure 2.2.
The electrons move from the point where there is an excess of
them (cathodes) to the point where there is a deficit of them (anode).
Taking advantage of the «bridge» laid by the conducting wire, the
conventional sense, however, is opposite, and is still used to avoid
confusion in established theories based on this traditional sense.
 Figure 2-2. Real sense of the current.

The conventional sense of the current is therefore fictitious, not

real. The direction of the current is opposite to the movement of the
electrons that produce it (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2-3. Conventional sense of the current.

Conduction mechanism in metals

In metals, the atoms are remarkably close together and their outer
layers are not complete, so the electrons can easily circulate from
atom to atom. In the absence of any unidirectional attraction, the
electrons move randomly, so that, on average, no net charge is
transported from one part of the metal to another, as illustrated in
figure 2.4.

Figure 2-4. Movement of electrons without an electric field.

On the other hand, if in a metal, for example, at the end of a wire,

the electrons are attracted by some process, their movement stops
being completely random and a drift appears towards the area from
which electrons are removed, as shown in figure 2.5. This movement
constitutes an electric current.

Figure 2-5. Movement of electrons with electronic field.

Direct current and alternating

current
We now know that currents usually consist of negative electron
displacements, but the convention has not changed. By definition,
positive current has the direction of positive charges, which is
opposite to the flow of electrons.
In direct current the flow of charges has a direction during the
period of time considered. Figure 2.6 shows the graph of a direct
current as a function of time. More specifically, it shows a stationary
direct current, since the magnitude remains constant at the value I.

Figure 2-6. Direct current.

In alternating current, the charges flow first in one direction and

then in another, repeating the cycle with a specified frequency.

Figure 2-7. Alternating current.

The wave shown in figure 2.7 is sinusoidal, with a maximum value

or peak of The solid part shows a complete cycle, which repeats
itself 60 times per second and the dotted part shows the cyclic form
in which the wave repeats.

Difference in potential, voltage, or tension

Figure 2.8 shows the diagram of the simplest of the circuits: it
consists of a battery that powers up a lamp. The current I circulates
from the battery to the lamp and from the lamp to the battery, thus
constituting a path or closed circuit.
If one of the wires is disconnected or if a switch inserted in one of
the wires has been opened, we have an open circuit; in this case
there would be no current (I=0), and no power transfer.
Another thing would happen if by forming the circuit, accidentally,
connected in wire between points e and d or between points a and b,
around the lamp or the battery, respectively.

Figure 2-8. Elementary circuit.

In this case we would have what is called a short circuit. The

battery's current would be high (normally destructive), and this would
not pass through the lamp except in such a negligible amount that one
could say that there would be no transfer of energy to the lamp;
usually, these problems are avoided by placing fuses or circuit
breakers which serve to open the circuit automatically when such
failures occur.
However, in order to maintain the current, I in the circuit, a power
consumption is necessary for the charges to flow through the lamp
and the wires, this work or energy is obtained from the source;
Figure 2.8. The work done when moving a charge between two
points in a circuit is called the difference in potential, voltage or
tension between those two points. The voltage, in other words, is the
work or energy per unit load. Quantitatively it would be.
 (2.
6)

Where: ​ ​V = Voltage.
W = Work or energy.
Q = Electric charge.
In the International System or MKS, the voltage is measured in
volts (V). A volt is the work done by a joule to move a single coulomb
charge from one point to another.
Sometimes referred to as voltage as a potential difference. This is
because the current, going from point a to point b, in the lamp, figure
2.8, consumes energy; that is, point a is at a higher tension or voltage
than point b, and the net voltage on the charge is called . In
general, y . This second expression
is equivalent to the first, since
So we can also write:

(2.
7)

For the positive elements that we consider below (Sections 3.4,

3.5 and 3.6), it will be of immense importance to keep this point in
mind.
In general, a voltage rise occurs at the terminal where the current
enters an element. While a voltage drop occurs at the outgoing
terminal.
The voltage increase will be represented by a plus sign ( . and
the voltage decrease by a minus sign .
Thus, the currents, to the passive elements, always enter by ( ,
with an increase in tension, and leave by less (-), with a drop in
tension, (figure 3.9, 3.18 and 3.20).

EXAMPLE 2.7
A power of 15J is required to move a 5C charge from a point to a
point b. How much voltage needs to be applied?

SOLUTION
According to the problem data . Replacing
these values in equation (2.6), we arrive at a voltage of:

EXAMPLE 2.8
To move a flow of 8 x 1019 electrons a voltage of 12V is applied.
Calculate the power dissipation.

SOLUTION
First, we determine the charge in coulombs, thus:

Replacing now these values in the equation (2.6), we have:

Clearing it we have:
Analogy for electric current and
voltage
It is possible to make a comparison between electrical current and
water flowing through a pipe connecting two tanks with different
water levels. (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2-9. Level difference (comparable to a difference in potential).

If the two water levels are equal, then there will be no current
circulation.
In conclusion, water (current) flows through the pipe (conductor)
thanks to the difference in level (voltage or difference in potential)
until the water levels are equal.
If, for example, a pump is placed between two tanks, as shown in
figure 2.10, so that the pump keeps the difference in levels between
the two storage containers constant, the current will also flow
continuously from A to B.
The first case resembles a battery, which eventually runs out due
to chemical reactions. The second case represents an electronic
generator, in which the tension level remains constant, and therefore
the current flow through the conductor also remains constant.
 Figure 2-10. The difference in level remains constant.

Electric power
In a particular case, power is that which is delivered or absorbed in
the part of the circuit through which voltage is measured (v). This
element must also conduct a current (i), and as the voltage varies
with time, so will the power (p) change at each instant, and its
instantaneous value will be:
(2.
8)
But if both current and voltage remain constant over time, the
power will also be constant, which will be calculated as:
(2.
9)
If we replace equations (2.4) and (2.6) in (2.9), we get:

Result that is equal to that given in the equation (2.2).

EXAMPLE 2.9
A current of 2.6A flows through an electrical charge connected to a
110V source. What is the power of the charge?

SOLUTION
According to the equation (2.9), power is given by:

If we replace the values given by the problem in the formula, we

arrive at:

The power unit in the International System is the Watt (W), 1W is

the product of 1V and 1A, and is equivalent to the consumption of 1J
per second, to move a given charge.

Electric energy
When the voltage and current remain constant over a given time
interval, then we speak of a total energy, which is delivered by a
source and absorbed by a charge. Quantitatively, the energy is given
by:
(2.1
0)
If we replace equation (2.9) in (2.10), we get:
(2.1
1)

Equation which is the same as that from (2.2) and which was used
in example 2.2.

EXAMPLE 2.10
Suppose in the previous exercise, that the charge is connected for 10
hours. How much energy is absorbed by this charge from the source?
SOLUTION
From the above problem we know that the power dissipated by the
charge is 286W.
If we replace this value and the 10-hour time in the equation (2.11)
we get:

What in the most common unit of KWh, will be:

Or:

The main electrical quantities with which the electrician and the
electronics technician are normally in contact have already been
introduced. They are summarized in Table 2.2, along with their most
common units and their abbreviations. To denote larger or smaller
units, a series of prefixes are used with the name of the basic unit,
thus avoiding a large number of zeros before and after the decimal
point.
Table 2-2. Main electrical quantities.
ELECTRICAL ABBREVIATIO
UNIT
QUANTITY N
Charge Q, q Coulomb
Current I, i Ampere
Voltage V, v Volt
Power P, p Watt
Energy E, e Joule
Time t Second
 These prefixes, with their abbreviations in parentheses, are given
in table 2.3. Thus, in industrial circuits we will speak of kilovolts (kV)
and Megawatts (MW), while in low-power electronic circuits and in
communications circuits we will frequently deal with millivolts (mV)
and microamperes (µA). As we will see later, these prefixes are also
used for the units of the circuit constants.
Table 2-3. Prefixes used with electrical quantities.
FOR LARGE QUANTITIES FOR SMALL QUANTITIES
GRANDES
Kilo (K) 103 units Mili (m) 10-3 units
Mega (M) 106 units Micro (µ) 10-6 units
Giga (G) 109 units Nano (n) 10-9 units
Tera (T) 1012 units Pico (p) 10-12 units
REVIEW
Concepts
Define or discuss the following:
☐ Work, power and energy.
☐ Neutral electrical charge.
☐ Coulomb's Law.
☐ Real sense and conventional sense of the electrical current.
☐ Mechanism of conduction in metals.
☐ Alternating current and direct current.
☐ «In order for there to be electrical current there must be a
closed path and a difference in potential».
☐ Voltage, current and power variable over time.

EXERCISES
2.1. Calculate the force with which they attract each other:

a.
In a vacuum.
b.
In the water.
c.
In oil.

Electrical charges of +20C and -30C separated by 5cm.

2.2. A force of 12N moves along a d distance, doing a job of
38J. Calculate the d distance.
2.3. An electrical source provides 60J of power for 3 hours.
What power can this source deliver?
2.4. A lamp works with a voltage of 110V. If the absorbed
power is 150W, what is the value of the current demanded
 by the lamp? If it operates during 5 continuous hours, how
much energy will it consume? How much if it works for 19
hours?
2.5. For 5 seconds 80 x 1018 electrons pass through a point
in a conductor. How much current circulates through the
conductor in that time?

2.6. At a given time ( ) 20C pass through a point on a

conductor and 10 seconds later a 50C charge has been
recorded. What is the instantaneous value of the
circulating current?
2.7. How many electrons are in a 100 Coulomb charge?
2.8. A voltage of 60V is applied to move a 12C load. How
much power is required in this process?

RESEARCH
2.1. What is the difference between direct current and continuous
current?
2.2. How many kinds of direct current can be determined?
 Chapter 3
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND
BASIC LAWS

Electrical circuit
An electrical circuit is a symbolic representation of a physical
arrangement. It is characterized by having one or more active
elements interconnected with one or more passive elements of
electrical energy.

Active elements
Active elements include batteries, accumulators and sources, the
latter could be both independent or dependent. Sources have the
characteristic or property of supplying either a potential difference
(voltage source) or a current (current source) indefinitely. Voltage
sources deliver voltage independently of current and current sources
deliver current independently of voltage; for this reason, they are
called independent sources. Dependent sources, on the other hand,
deliver a voltage or a current as a function of currents or voltages
existing in another part of the circuit; they are also called current-
controlled sources and voltage-controlled sources.

Passive elements
The individual passive elements that form the receiving part or
drains of an electrical network are also called “Parameters.”
The relationships between the voltages and the currents between
the elements of the circuit have been established on experimental
basis. There are three types of circuit elements:

1. A circuit element type requires a voltage directly

proportional to the current of the element. The constant of
proportionality is called “Resistance.” This constant or
circuit parameter is closely related to the dissipation of
energy in the form of heat in the circuit and is discussed in
more detail below.
2. Another type of circuit element requires a voltage directly
proportional to the change in current with respect to time;
the constant of proportionality is called “Inductance”
This parameter is closely related to the magnetic field of
the circuit.
3. The third type of circuit element requires a current
proportional to the change in voltage with respect to time.
The constant of proportionality is called “Capacitance”
and this parameter is associated with the electric field of
the circuit.

All electrical circuits consist of a combination of these three types

of circuit elements. However, for practical purposes, not all types
must be present in every circuit.

Batteries and accumulators

Two metals and the special liquid or solution that introduces the
potential difference between the metals are necessary to generate
electricity by a chemical process. The resulting element is called a
volta battery, in honor of the scientist Alejandro Volta who discovered
it.
More specifically in the Volta battery, figure 3.1(a), two electrical
conductors of varied materials, Zn and Cu, are submerged in a
conductive solution or diluted electrolyte (H2SO4). There is then a
potential or tension difference between two metals.
 Figure 3-1. (a) Volta battery, (b) Schematic symbol for a battery.

The two metals are called electrodes, poles or battery terminals.

Zn is positively charged and takes the name of an anode, with a
deficit of electrons.
Figure 3.1(b) shows the schematic symbol for a battery. Since the
current produced by a battery is small, Volta arranged a series of
batteries on top of each other, creating the first battery in series.
Figure 3.2(a) shows the arrangement made by Volta, and figure
3.2(b) shows the schematic symbol for a battery.

Figure 3-2. (a) Composition of a battery (b) symbol for a battery.

Batteries become unusable after a certain time because the

electrolyte or one of the electrodes is consumed, due to the chemical
reactions which occur during the process. These batteries can only
be operated again by adding more electrolyte or by replacing the
worn-out electrode.
However, a special type of electrochemicals have the particularity
of not losing their properties and by means of a charging process
they can work again without the addition of new substances. These
are the "accumulators" and to charge them it is necessary to use
auxiliary generators. (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3-3. Accumulator, indicating generator G, for charging.

Analogy for a battery

A battery (direct current generator), equipped with poles and
connected to an external closed circuit, is comparable to a centrifugal
pump connected to an external piping closed circuit, so that it pumps
current through its positive pole (suction port). In this operation the
pressure or voltage is spent, but the current or flow is not spent, it
circulates in a closed circuit. (Figure 3.4).
 Figure 3-4. Analogy for a battery.

Independent voltage and current sources

In themselves, both the battery and the accumulator are independent
sources, since, as such, they are able to supply electrical power
(voltage and current) independently of any other process.
The representation in figure 3.5 (a) shows a voltage source, where
the voltage e is generally a function of time. The voltage rise is found
between the terminal marked and the terminal marked , if
the function is positive.

Figure 3-5. Representation of independent sources (a) of voltage (b) of current.

The representation of the ideal current source is shown in figure

3.5 (b). In the figure, the arrow points in the direction of the positive
current.
Physical sources are not ideal sources of voltage or ideal sources
of current. In many cases, however, the ideal representation is
sufficient for the purposes pursued in any study.
In a circuit which has an only source and one or more passive
elements, the power is always supplied by that source. But if in the
same circuit there are several sources and one or several passive
elements, the power of the source can be absorbed or supplied, that
is, at least one of the sources supplies the energy and the rest ends
up absorbing it, just like the other passive elements.
A source always has an assigned polarity. If the current exits the
positive terminal, figure 3.6 (a), the source is delivering or providing
power. When the current enters the positive terminal of the source,
figure 3.6 (b) we say that the source is absorbing power. The current
can also have a positive or negative direction, depending on the
direction of flow. So, for example, the current I in Figure 3.6(a) will be
-I if the direction of the arrow is reversed. The same can be said for
the case of figure 3.6(b).

Figure 3-6. Power (a) supplied and (b) Absorbed.

Analogy
Figure (3.7) shows the graph corresponding to the analogy of an
alternating current generator (electric power source), connected to an
external closed circuit, comparable to a piston pump (which raises
and lowers the piston inside a cylinder) and connected to a closed
circuit of pipes.
 Figure 3-7. Analogy of an alternating current generator.

In both cases, the source changes polarity with every up and down
movement of the piston. Upgrades can be considered positive and
downgrades negative. The opposite consideration can also be made.

EXAMPLE 3.1
Determine whether the source is supplying or absorbing power in the
following cases.
 Figure 3-7-1. Circuit from Example 3.1.

SOLUTION
First of all, we note that for all cases the magnitude of the power is
determined as the product , of voltage and current.
Secondly, we proceed to determine the positive polarities of the
sources and, equally, the directions of the current arrows when the
current has a positive value, as follows:

a. as well as are positives, since exits through the

positive terminal, the source is providing the power.
b. For the current to be positive it is necessary to reverse
the direction of the arrow, that is, the current would be
entering through the positive terminal of the source, which
implies that the source is absorbing power.
c. Voltage as well as current are positive, the current
enters the positive terminal, then the source absorbs
power.
d. By reversing the direction of the current, it will exit
through the positive terminal. That is, the source is
supplying power.
e. Observe how the source is inverted, that is, with the
polarity inverted downwards; as the current is also
negative, when inverting the arrow, it would be entering
through the negative terminal of the source, that is, exiting
through the positive terminal. Thus, the source is
supplying power.
 f. As in the previous case, by changing the direction of the
current, it leaves through the negative terminal, or enters
through the positive terminal. The source absorbs power.

Dependent or controlled sources

There is a second class of sources where the source's voltage or
current is a function of the voltage or current in another section of the
circuit or device. The physical devices in which these controlled
sources exist include electrical generators and transistors. In the
generator the voltage induced in one coil is a function of the current in
another coil. In the transistor the output current may be proportional
to the input current. Figure 3.8 shows four types of controlled
sources.

Figure 3-8. Depiction of controlled sources.

The types shown are a voltage source with controlled voltage,

Figure 3.8 (a); a current source with controlled voltage, Figure 3.8
(b); a voltage source with controlled current, Figure 3.8 (c); a current
source with controlled current, Figure 3.8 (d).
Both the source and the control variable must be known for study.
Resistance and the Laws of Ohm, Pouillet and de
Joule

Ideal resistances
Figure 3.9 shows the symbol of ideal or perfect resistance.

Figure 3-9. Graphic depiction of a resistance.

An ideal resistance does not change its value with temperature or

for any other reason and can carry an infinite current without being
destroyed. By definition, of course, it has neither capacitance nor
inductance. This type of element, as mentioned above, requires a
voltage between its terminals that is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it. Expressed quantitatively, the voltage is:
(3.
1)

Where I is the current in amps. The proportionality constant R is

the resistance of the element and is measured in Ohms ( symbol)
The relationship between voltage and current expressed in equation
(3.1) is known as Ohm's Law.

EXAMPLE 3.2
An electrical device works with a current of 2.67A and a voltage of
60V. What is the value of its resistance?
SOLUTION
If we clear R from the equation (3.1), we get:

And by replacing the values given in this equation:

EXAMPLE 3.3
What will be the resistance of an electric lamp operating at a voltage
of 110V and consuming a current of 0.9A?

SOLUTION
We have seen that the electrical resistance is calculated by the
expression:

Replacing the values of V and I in this expression we arrive at:

Real resistances
The resistances can be made of a large number of materials.
Figure 3.10 shows how some of the main types indicated there are
manufactured. However, it should be noted that there are
considerable variations between products from different
manufacturers.
 In the case of the coiled wire resistance, if the resistance wire is
wound onto a support forming a coil, its inductance can be
considerable. However, by placing two equal coils together on the
same support and connecting them in series, but in such a way that
the currents flow in opposite directions, the resulting flow will be
depreciable and so will be the inductance. Resistances manufactured
in this way are called non-inductive coil resistances.

Figure 3-10. Several types of resistance.

The manufacturing process for carbon resistances is quite

different. The material can be pure compressed coal in the form of a
rod, or also coal mixed with clay, forming a cylinder. The inductance
is small, since the resistance is only part of a spiral.
A third type of resistance, with a normally high ohmic value, is the
resistance formed by a thin film of conductive material which may be
a metal or carbon deposited on an insulating material support.
 Figure 3-11. Resistance varies with the length and cross section of the conductor.

Calculating the resistance from the

geometrical shape of the
conductor
Analysis of equation (3.1), Ohm's Law, and Figure 3.11 shows that
the current will be greater the lesser the resistance of the
conductor is to the passage of that current. This opposite resistance
depends on the nature of the conductor, its length and its cross
section, essentially. Ohm found that the resistance of a conductor is
directly proportional to its length ( ) and inversely proportional to the
cross-section ( ). These results, called Pouillet's law, can be
summarized in the formula:

(3.
2)
Where the coefficient ρ is called resistivity or specific resistance
and depends on the substance. The resistivity is equal to the
resistance of a conductor equal in length and section to the unit. Table
3.1 shows the resistivity of some substances when they are at a
temperature of 20° C.

Table 3-1. Resistivity of some elements at 20°C.

Material Resistivity Material Resistivity
 Aluminum Graphite
Antimony Iron
Bakelite,
Compounds and Lead
Plastic Resins
Manganin
Tin
Alloy
Carbon Mercury

Constantan Alloy Mica

Copper Nichrome
Alpaca (German
Rubber (hard)
silver)
Germanium Silicon

Glass Silver

Gold Steel (4% if)

Tungsten
* Values may vary depending on the purity of the material.

EXAMPLE 3.4
A germanium plate has a length of 0.5m and a circular cross-section
of 0.3 mm2. Calculate its resistance.

SOLUTION
According to table 3.1, Germanium has a resistance of
The section is which is equal to . If we
replace these values in equation 3.2, We get that:
 Meaning:

EXAMPLE 3.5
An iron conductor has a square section of de lado y una
resistencia de ¿What will be the length of the conductor?

SOLUTION
Clearing the length from the equation (3.2), we get:

Iron, according to Table 3.1, has a resistivity of 9.8 x 10-7 Ω-m by

replacing these values we get:

Meaning:

Analogy and energy of resistance

The electrical resistance is comparable to friction in pipes in the
hydraulic analogue and also to rubbing in mechanical systems.
Resistance or friction is directly opposed to current, water flow or
movement, and the energy dissipated to overcome this opposition
appears in the form of heat. The power dissipated by resistance can
be determined from the equation (2.9), combined with the equation
(3.1):

(3.
3)
 Or:

(3.
4)

The result is The Law of Joule: The amount of heat released from
a conductor is proportional to its resistance and the square of the
current intensity (according to equation (3.3)). Or the amount of heat
released from a conductor is inversely proportional to the resistance
and directly proportional to the square of the voltage (According to
equation (3.4)).

EXAMPLE 3.6
An electrical resistance works with a voltage of 220V and an ohmic
value of 100 is measured at its terminals. Calculate the power
dissipated by the resistance.

SOLUTION
With the given values in the problem and the equation (3.4), we
calculate:

EXAMPLE 3.7
Through a 0.2m long silicon conductor with a 0.0002m radius circular
cross section, electrons circulate in two seconds.
Calculate the power dissipated by the element.

SOLUTION
We know that the driver has a circular cross-section with a value of:
With a radius of , we get:

Meaning:

In table 3.1 we see that the resistivity of silicon is

and replacing in the equation (3.2):

Therefore:

Which is also equivalent to:

The charge flowing through the conductor is:

Which means:

And in 2 seconds there is a current intensity of:

 With these values we can replace in the equation (3.3) and arrive
at:

Meaning:

Or,

NOTE: ​The nature and data of this and all other problems in this
book are strictly and merely educational, so that the results in some
cases would be very unlikely to become a reality.

Influence of temperature on
resistance
From what we have seen so far, the capacity to conduct electrical
current is not the same for all conductive materials, and it also varies
with temperature. Changes in temperature modify the energy of the
electrons in the atoms of a substance and since the mobility of these
electrons affects the capacity of the electrical current to circulate, it is
natural that a relationship exists between temperature and
conduction.
In some materials the variation of resistance with temperature is
large, and in others, quite considerable, so it is necessary to have a
method for evaluating these changes, as well as to know the
resistance itself.
 The correlation between resistance and temperature is non-linear,
as can be seen in Figure 3.12 for lead, which was obtained by means
of experimentation. However, it is often the case in practice that the
temperature variation from another temperature for which resistance
is known is not too great, and a linear relationship can be used, which
is usually written as follows:
(3.
5)

Where: Resistance to temperature.

Known resistance to temperature.
Temperature coefficient of the material at
temperature.

Figure 3-12. Curve of resistance variation caused by temperature for lead.

Table 3.2 presents the temperature coefficient for different

commonly used materials:
It is necessary to remark that means that the copper resistance
increases at a rate of 0.43% per each °C from 0°C.
Table 3-2. Temperature coefficients of some metals at 0°.
METAL TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT ( )
Silver 0.0040
Copper 0.0043
 Gold 0.0037
Aluminum 0.0042
Tungsten 0.0051
Nickel 0.0044
Tin 0.0047
Iron 0.0042
Lead 0.0041
Mercury 0.0009

EXAMPLE 3.8
The resistance of a copper electromagnet coil is 30Ω when the
temperature is 20°C. What will be the resistance of the coil when the
temperature is 800C and the coefficient is 0,0043?

SOLUTION
Using equation (3.5) with ,
we get:

Which is reduced to the value of:

Conductance and conductivity

Equation (3.1) gives the voltage between the terminals of a
resistor in terms of its current. A reciprocal relationship can be used,
where the current in terms of the voltage is generally of equal value,
or slightly higher in a particular case. As a result, Ohm's Law can
often also be expressed as:
(3.
6)
 Where:

(3.
7)

The inverse of the resistance, G, is called conductance and is

measured in mhos. A more modern unit also used is the Siemens (S)
Now, if resistance is the degree of opposition that a material presents
to the passage of current, we can define the conductance as the
degree with which this material allows the circulation of this current.
The power, in terms of conductance, can be expressed as:
(3.
8)
Or:

(3.
9)

EXAMPLE 3.9
Calculate the conductance of a conductor, if when applying a potential
difference of 110V, the current is 0.2A.

SOLUTION

According to Ohm's Law:

And according to the expression given in equation (3.7):

 Similarly, the inverse of the resistivity of a conductor is the
conductivity, represented by (Greek letter Sigma).

(3.1
0)

So, the expression in equation (3.2) can also be written as:

(3.1
1)

Or by using conductance:

(3.1
2)

The unit of conductivity is , the Siemens/m.

EXAMPLE 3.10
Given a square shaped gold bar, 50m in side and 10.75m in length,
specify its conductivity and conductance.

SOLUTION
From Table 3.1 and from equation (3.10):
Variable Resistances
Rheostats
The relationship between the length and resistance of a conductor
is of great application in the preparation of variable resistances or
rheostats, of which the simplest and most used type is the sliding
rheostat, which consists, figure 3.13, of a metal wire wound in a helix
on a porcelain tube or other insulator. The current enters through A,
travels through several coils, with a determined ohmic value, until it
reaches the mobile contact or slide C where it exits to B. The
resistance depends on the number of turns between A and C. By
varying the position C, the resistance in the circuit varies.

Figure 3-13. Rheostat construction principle.

In the diagrams, the rheostats are represented as shown in figure

3.14.
Potentiometers
Another type of variable resistance is the potentiometer. They are
similar in construction to rheostats, the difference being that they are
differently shaped, usually smaller and manage exceptionally low
powers (voltages and currents) in comparison.
 Figure 3-14. Rheostat symbol.

Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconductor resistances where the resistance
varies considerably with changes in temperature. They have
important applications in measurement and control.

Analogy for variable resistances

A variable resistor or rheostat is used to regulate the amount of
current flowing through a circuit. It is comparable to inserting a
butterfly valve (moving gate) into a pipe carrying pressurized water;
figure 3.15.

Figure 3-15. Analogy for a rheostat.

It can be fully opened (zero resistance) or fully closed (infinite
resistance); however, intermediate positions are possible by leaving it
ajar.
A potentiometer consists of a resistance on which a sliding contact
can be moved. The voltage it takes from the source depends on its
position. It is therefore a typical voltage divider.
When the contact is in position A it takes the maximum voltage, in
position B the minimum voltage. An intermediate value is obtained for
example in position C.
The potentiometer is comparable to a full tank of water in which H
is the maximum pressure on the bottom. It has a movable tube that
can be tilted over the bottom, so that the partial pressure h is used in
an intermediate position, as shown in figure 3.16. The maximum
pressure H is used in the position A (horizontal pipe), while in the
vertical position B no water is released.

Figure 3-16. Potentiometer analogy.

Summary of formulas
Finally, figure 3.17 shows a chart in which all the formulas that can
be detached by clearing the laws of Ohm and Joule are linked. The
unknown (central part) is found in each case as a function of two
known values.
 Figure 3-17. Chart connecting Ohm's law and Joule's law (summary of formulas).

Inductance

Ideal Inductances
Figure 3.18 shows the symbol of a perfect self-inducting coil or
inductance.

Figure 3-18. Symbol of an inductance or coil.

 The conductive material formed by the coils has no resistance, and
the medium near the coil does not cause a loss of energy when a
variable magnetic field is established. Ideally, an infinite current can
pass through the coil without damaging it, so that a perfect
inductance can also store infinite energy.

Real inductances
Real inductive coils are built in many different ways. They are
essentially constructed from a winding of wire wound on a support
which may or may not be magnetic material. Particular mention can
be made of ferrites, which are materials with high permeability and
low losses at medium and high frequencies. They are commonly used
in radio and television.
An example of a coil with an iron core can be seen in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3-19. Iron core coil.

Unlike perfect inductances, real ones also have resistance and

capacity, which can be reduced to minimum values by using suitable
materials and construction forms.
This circuit element, as already mentioned, requires a voltage
between its terminals directly proportional to the rate of change of the
current. Expressed quantitatively the voltage is:
 (3.1
3)

The constant of proportionality, , is the element’s inductance.

When , and are expressed in volts, amperes y seconds
respectively, the inductance is measured in Henries ( ).

Analogy and energy of the

inductance
Inductance is analogous to mass or inertia in mechanical systems
and to the mass of the liquid in hydraulic systems.
The energy associated with the inductive effect is:

(3.1
4)

Unlike the energy dissipated by a resistance, the energy due to the

inductive effect is stored in the same way as kinetic energy is stored
within a moving mass. Its value, as can be seen in equation (3.14),
depends on the current passing through it, and as the circuit current
becomes zero, the coil current reappears until it is also exhausted.

EXAMPLE 3.10
In a time, interval of 5 seconds, a uniform current flow of 0.02
Amperes was measured, when a voltage of 0.8m had been applied to
a small coil. Calculate the inductance of the coil, and the energy
stored inside it.

SOLUTION
We can rewrite the equation (3.13), as:
 Where means “a change.” This way we would get:

Clearing we get:

And replacing:

And the equation (3.14):

Meaning:

Capacitance

Ideal capacitors
Capacitors are one of the most widely used electrical components
in use today. Figure 3.20 shows the symbol of an ideal capacitor. It
can withstand the application of an infinite potential difference
between its terminals and therefore store an infinite electrical charge,
so that the application of a constant potential difference does not
result in current circulation. Furthermore, it does not produce energy
losses.

Figure 3-20. Symbol of a capacity or capacitor.

Real capacitors or condensers

Real capacitors consist of conductive electrodes connected to two
terminals and separated by a dielectric.
Figure 3.21 shows the construction of two typical capacitors used
in many applications.

Figure 3-21. Impregnated paper and ceramic condenser constructions.

Variable capacitors often have the structure shown in figure 3.22

(a). In general, air is the most commonly used dielectric, although
sheets of any dielectric material are sometimes inserted between the
fixed and moving plates.
Another type of small variable capacitor is represented in Figure
3.22 (b), in which the dielectric is mica, and the capacity is regulated
by varying the separation between the plates.

Figure 3-22. (a) Variable capacitor with air dielectric (b) "Trimmer" variable capacitor.

Capacity is defined as the relationship between the charge and the

voltage of two conductors, i.e.:

(3.1
5)

Where appears in coulombs, in volts and in farads.

Because the farad is a physically large quantity, is expressed often
in microfarads ( ) or in picofarads ( ). See table 2.3.
Likewise, and given that the current is the variation of the charge
with respect to time, the above equation leads to:

(3.1
6)

Where current is expressed in amperes.

Analogy of energy and

capacitance
A capacitor is basically a voltage source capable of supplying the
circuit when the source voltage drops; it is comparable to a hydro-
pneumatic tank filled with water and air pressure, as called in figure
3.23. When the pressure increases, it is charged; if the source
pressure decreases, it is discharged, trying to maintain the pressure
in the pipe.

Figure 3-23. Analogy for a condenser.

The capacity is also analogous to the constants of a spring in

mechanical systems.
The energy associated with the capacitive effect is:
(3.1
7)

The energy represented in equation (3.17) is stored in the capacity

in an analogous way as a compressed or elongated spring stores
potential energy. Its value depends only on the magnitude of the
voltage.

EXAMPLE 3.11
Calculate the capacity of a conductor with a load of 20C if its
potential is 220V.

SOLUTION
From equation (3.15) and with:
EXAMPLE 3.12
Find the charge of a conductor that has a capacitance of . if
the potential is .

SOLUTION

From the equation (3.15):

Meaning:

EXAMPLE 3.13
For the condenser of exercise 3.12, calculate the stored energy.

SOLUTION
According to equation (3.17):

If , then:

Which comes down to:

Calculating capacity from the
geometrical shape
The capacitance of two parallel plate capacitors, figure 3.24,
depends on their shape and dimensions, and is given by:
Where is the permittivity of a dielectric (or dielectric constant)
see Table 2.1, A is the area and is the space between plates. Thus
calculated the capacity is expressed in picofarads, as shown in the
expression.

Figure 3-24. Parallel plate capacitor.

(3.1
8)

There are other geometric shapes used in the manufacture of

conductors, however, the mathematical form for calculating their
capacity is complex and escapes the purposes of this text.

EXAMPLE 3.14
Determine the capacity value of a parallel plate capacitor for which
the plate dimensions are 2.5cm per 100cm, the distance between the
plates is 0.025cm and the dielectric material paper (K=4).
SOLUTION
Replacing in equation (3.18) we get:

Characteristics and applications of

capacitors
Many varied sizes and types have been developed in order to
meet the requirements and applications for capacitors.
A list of commonly used capacitors is shown in Table 3.3:
Table 3-3. Typical characteristic of commonly used fixed capacitors.
Maximu Insulation
Maximum
m Toleranc Resistanc
Range of Operating
Type Working e e
Capacitances Temperatur
Voltage %
e (°C) ( )
(V)

Mica 50000 150 >100000

Silver Mica 75000 125 a 1000

Paper 100000 125 a 100

Polystyrene 1000 85 10000

Polycarbonate 600 140 10000

Polyester 600 125 10000

Ceramic: a
6000 125 1000
low k a
100 85 100
high k

Glass 6000 125 a >100000

Vacuum 60000 85 >100000

Energy
50000 100 a 100
Storage
Electrolytic: a
700 85 <1
Aluminum
100 125 a >1
Tantalus
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors
They provide high capacitance per unit of volume. They are used in
filtering, shunt and coupling applications where high capacitance is
required, but where tolerance and variation of capacitance with
temperature are not important. There are both polarized and non-
polarized units on the market. Electrolytic capacitors are not designed
for high frequency applications, and the reactance (resistive value
expressed in Ohms) can reach a minimum value at frequencies as
low as 10kHz.
In general, they show a gradual decrease in capacitance over an
extended period of time, approximately 10% after 10,000 working
hours.

Tantalum Electrical Capacitors

Tantalum capacitors are more flexible and have better
characteristics than aluminum electrolytes, but also their cost is much
higher. There are three types: sheet metal, wet and solid.
The main applications of these capacitors are in power supply,
shunt and coupling filters, where high capacitance and small envelope
size are particularly important.
It has the disadvantage of being very susceptible to high spikes in
transferred voltage; furthermore, it is recommended that the
operating voltage does not exceed 60% of nominal voltage.

Ceramic Capacitors
They are particularly suitable for filtering, bypassing and coupling
applications of integrated hybrid circuits, where considerable changes
in capacitance can be tolerated. They are low cost, small in size and
generally applicable in electronics.
Paper and plastic capacitors
They are widely used for filtering, coupling, bypassing, timing and
noise suppression. They are capable of operating at elevated
temperatures, have high insulation resistance and good stability.

Mica and glass capacitors

Used when excellent stability with respect to temperature, ageing
and frequency is required. They are used in coupling, shunt and high
frequency circuits that require reliable performance and reliability.

The protoboard
Although it is not strictly speaking a circuit element, this is a useful
tool in this subject.
The protoboard is a table of connections like the one shown in
figure 3.25, on which electronic circuits can be assembled without
having to resort to soldering.

Figure 3-25. Protoboard seen from above.

The connections are made quickly and easily, and it is therefore
especially useful when making experiments.
It has many holes in each section. Each hole houses a terminal of
a component or a cable. The five holes in each vertical row are
connected or interconnected by a small busbar (Figure 3.26). Two or
more cables or terminals, connected in one of the five holes will be in
contact with each other. There are 60 sets of five holes.

Figure 3-26. Protoboard seen from below and inside.

A central channel separates or divides the board into halves; the

integrated circuits are connected on the breadboard as shown in
figure 3.27. The numbers and letters are there to help identify each
hole during assembly work.

Figure 3-27. Connection of an IC on the protoboard.

Protoboard use
Let us say we want to mount a circuit to turn on an LED, like the
one shown in figure 3.28 (a). Figure 3.28 (b) shows how the
respective terminals would be welded.
The current flows from positive to negative through the LED, so the
LED lights up.
 Figure 3-28. (a) Electric circuit (b) How to make welded connections.

However, it is not always the intention to make the circuit with

welding. You may just want to know how it works or if it will work
well. This is what the protoboard is used for. In this case, the
terminals of the components will be connected to each other by metal
plates on the protoboard, as shown in figure 3.29.
 Figure 3-29. Circuit connections on the protoboard.

Cables that are to be connected together must be inserted into the

holes in the same vertical column.

Kirchhoff’s Laws
The fundamental laws of electrical circuits are presented as basic
consequences of the nature of the electrical quantities defined in the
preceding paragraphs, and they lead directly to the methods for the
systematic study of electrical circuits. These laws are known as
Kirchhoff's Laws. The first of these is the law of currents.

Kirchhoff's Law of Currents (KLC)

The algebraic sum of all the currents entering a node is equal to
the algebraic sum of all the currents leaving the same node.
The term node (or joint) is defined as a point where three or more
elements, either active or passive, are connected. In applying this
law, currents directed towards the joint can be considered positive,
while those going in the opposite direction can be considered
negative. It can also be considered, on the contrary, as long as it is
consistent. In figure 3.30 the equation at the junction point , is:
 Figure 3-30. Connection or splicing in a circuit.

Which means that all the electricity flowing into the node must also
flow out of it.

EXAMPLE 3.15
In the circuit in figure 3.30 it follows that

SOLUTION
As we saw in the previous section, Kirchhoff's law of currents, for the
circuit in question, leads to:

If we solve from here and we replace, we get:

 The fact that current yields a negative result means that the
opposite direction is correct for the direction of current flow.

EXAMPLE 3.16
Given the circuit in figure 3.31:

Determine the value of current .

Figure 3-31. Circuit of the exercise 3.16.

SOLUTION
Kirchhoff's current equation for the circuit is:

The values of the currents are not known, but they can be
calculated with the data given in the problem. Using equation (3.1)
and clearing in the above equation we have:

As in the previous case, the real direction of current flow is

opposite to that assumed in the circuit.
 Kirchhoff's second law is the law of voltages:

Kirchhoff's Law of Voltages (KLV)

The algebraic sum of all voltages taken in one direction around a
grid is zero.
This law is a consequence of the principle of conservation of
energy and is equivalent to making a balance by equalizing the energy
that enters the circuit and that which leaves it. In writing the equations
you can go around the path in any direction and add up the voltage
rises or falls (see section 2.4.), as long as you are consistent with a
particular equation.
In general terms, solving circuits involves determining voltages and
currents in certain elements, known current and voltage in other
elements.
Figure 3.32 shows a closed mesh or path for which the KLV allows
the following equation to be obtained, taking as a reference the first
signs in the direction shown.

Equation which can be re-written as:

 Figure 3-32. Mesh or closed path.

This means that the voltage delivered by the source is fully

distributed among the three resistances that make up the circuit.

EXAMPLE 3.17
In the circuit shown in figure 3.32 the source voltage, , is 15 volts;
is 7 volts and is 1 volt. Calculate the voltage for .

SOLUTION
Applying Kirchhoff's law of voltages to this mesh yields the equation:

Where we can find that:

Replacing:
REVIEW
Concepts
Define or discuss the following:
☐ Active elements AND passive elements of electrical circuits.
☐ Ohm's law, Pouillet's law, Joule's law.
☐ Electrical resistance, resistivity.
☐ Capacitor, condenser, capacity and capacitance.
☐ Inductor, coil, inductance.
☐ Conductance.
☐ Kirchhoff’s Law.

EXERCISES
3.1. Figure 3.33 shows an electrical circuit. Determine the
value of the power managed by the circuit, and which of
the two elements delivers it and which receives it.

Figure 3-33. Circuit from problem 3.1.

3.2. An electrical resistance works normally when a voltage

of 169V is applied and a current of 0.7A is circulated.
Determine its value.
3.3. The resistance of a precision coil is measured, and it
yields a value of . If a current of 9 amperes flows
through its coils... what is the value of the applied voltage?
3.4. A plate of in length and across has a
resistivity of What is the value of the
resistance?
3.5. A resistor must protect an LED diode, through which
. must circulate. If the resistance is and is in
series with the LED, what is the value of the maximum
power it will dissipate?

3.6. The resistance of a copper transformer coil is at a

temperature of 0°C. What will be the resistance of the coil
when the temperature is 25°C? ( ).
3.7. What will be the conductance of a metal sheet that has a
resistance of ?

3.8. A condenser has a capacity (C) of . If we apply a

voltage of between its terminals. What will be the
value of the energy you can store?

3.9. In the circuit from figure 3.34, calculate :

Figure 3-34. Circuit from problem 3.9.

3.10. Given the circuit in figure 3.35. Calculate the value of .

Figure 3-35. Circuit from problem 3.10.
 Chapter 4
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

«The main purpose of measuring electrical quantities is to know and

evaluate them, in order to correctly control the processes of
production, transmission, distribution and use of electrical energy».
To measure a magnitude is to compare it in measurement with
another which has been taken as a standard or unit. For this purpose,
measuring devices have been designed and built; these are devices
that, on the one hand, can convert one magnitude into another
(transducers) and on the other hand, can make a comparison
between the electrical magnitude and the one taken as a unit for the
purposes of its evaluation.
There are currently three types of electrical measuring
instruments: analogue display instruments, digital display instruments
and cathode ray oscilloscopes.
Analogical display instrument is any instrument that uses a
graduated scale for the indication of the measured quantity. Figure
4.1 (a) shows the presentation of a commercial Simpson multimeter
and Figure 4.1 (b) shows the analogue scale on which the information
is displayed.
 Figure 4-1. (a) Simpson commercial multimeter (b) Analog scale of a multimeter.

Analogue display instruments

The measurement of DC current and voltage in electric and electronic
circuits is conducted using a moving coil mechanism, which is based
on the principle of the galvanometer, figure 4.2, with which small
currents are measured.

Figure 4-2. Arrangement of the parts in a galvanometer.

Permanent magnets generate a North-South flow induction. When

we want to measure some electrical magnitude, what we do is to
allow the circulation of a current through the moving coil; this
generates a magnetic field that, since it exists in the same space as
the polar magnetic induction, gives rise to a rotation force. This
rotation is proportional to the magnitude to be measured, and the
needle will be detected by indicating the value at the base of the
analogical ammeters, multimeters and ohmmeters. The symbols for
the galvanometer are shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4-3. Symbol for a galvanometer.

Ammeter
It is an instrument used for measuring electrical currents. Its
symbol is shown in figure 4.4.

Figure 4-4. Symbol for the ammeter.

To build an ammeter you have to connect resistors in parallel with

the galvanometer, so that most of the current flows through the
resistance, called SHUNT, and not through the galvanometer. The
device also has another precision circuitry, which allows, among other
things, the display of the needle to match the value to be measured,
that is, the sum of the currents going through the Shunt resistance.
Figure 4.5.
If an ammeter capable of measuring on different scales is
required, several resistors are placed in parallel.
 Figure 4-5. Ammeter shunt.

Voltmeter
It is an instrument used to measure voltage, potential difference or
electric voltage. Its symbol is shown in figure 4.6.

Figure 4-6. Symbol for a voltmeter.

For its construction, resistors are connected in series with the

galvanometer, figure 4.6, so that most of the voltage to be measured
falls on the resistance and not on the galvanometer.
As in the case of the ammeter, the voltmeter has a complete circuit
that allows it to make the measurements in an exact and precise way.
Figure 4.7.
 Figure 4-7. Construction of a voltmeter.

If you want a voltmeter capable of measuring in different scales,

several resistors are placed in series with the galvanometer.

Ohmmeter
A measuring instrument used to measure resistances. It is also
used to locate open and short circuit components and determine the
continuity of a circuit. Its symbol is shown in figure 4.8.

Figure 4-8. Symbol of an Ohmmeter.

Like the voltmeter and ammeter, this basic test instrument uses a
DC energized galvanometer. However, unlike the voltmeter and
ammeter, the ohmmeter requires a built-in voltage source, figure 4.9.
 Figure 4-9. Fundamental series circuit of an ohmmeter.

When the test drivers corresponding to and are short-

circuited, the circuit is closed, and by the needle can be diverted
to the end of the scale. This is the zero position of the ohmmeter, at
the far right, and is called Zero adjustment.

Digital display instruments

These are electronic instruments which receive a voltage or current
signal or a combination of both and convert it into a direct voltage.
This, through an analog to digital converter is converted into a pulse
signal that is encoded and decoded in subsequent stages, which end
with a digital display on screen. Figure 4.10.

Figure 4-10. Block diagram of a digital measuring instrument.

The oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is a particularly useful measuring instrument, which
displays a graph of voltage on the vertical axis versus time on the
horizontal axis.
With it, the user can determine how much of the signal is direct
current, how much of it is alternating current, how much noise there
is, whether the noise is changing over time and what the frequency of
the signal is. What makes the device versatile, however, is that the
user can do all of the above things at the same time, and not in
separate tests.
Front panel controls make it easy for the user to choose from a
wide range of sensitivities, time references, display modes and
triggering possibilities. The front of an oscilloscope can be seen in
figure 4.11.

Figure 4-11. Cover of an oscilloscope.

In itself, managing the oscilloscope is simple. However, because of

how extensive an explanation of them could be even without falling
into too much superficiality, the topic will not be dealt with in this text.
Preferably, we refer the reader to catalogues, manuals or books that
deal properly with the subject.
Connecting the measuring instruments
Depending on the measurement for which they are intended,
measuring instruments have a particular way of being connected, and
also because of their special construction characteristics they require
certain natural minimum care, without which their service life can be
significantly reduced.
 Remember that measuring instruments - particularly analogue ones
- are built from a galvanometer. According to the magnitude to be
measured, resistors are placed in series with that element
(Voltmeter) or in parallel, (Ammeter). Depending on the precision,
class, accuracy, etc. with which the devices are designed, the value
of these resistances can vary in wide ranges. However, in general
terms, the resistance for a voltmeter can be considered infinite, while
the resistance of an ammeter can be considered zero.
When you want to measure an electric current, you have to open
the circuit and place the ammeter in series with the element that
conducts it, figure 4.12 (a); if you want to measure a voltage you
have to place the voltmeter in parallel with the element, figure 4.12
(b); and if you want to measure a resistance you have to place the
ohmmeter in parallel with the element, figure 4.12 (c).

Precautions
Care should be taken with the incorrect connection of the
measuring instruments, as any wrong way of handling them would
lead to rapid, if not immediate, deterioration of the instruments. In
particular, care must be taken not to connect an ammeter in parallel
with an energized component, because if we take into account that
the internal resistance of these instruments is very low (close to
zero), this would be equivalent to making a short circuit in which the
instrument, conducting a very high current, would be greatly
damaged; Similarly, when a resistance is measured, it cannot be
connected to any other, otherwise the measurement would be an
equivalent value and not the correct one of the element to be
measured.
 Figure 4-12. Connection of a measuring instrument to measure (a) Current (b) Voltage (c)
Resistance.

Comparative characteristics of analogue and digital

measuring instruments
In a workshop it is advisable to have both devices; the digital ones
are more mechanically robust, resistant to vibrations, jolts and shocks
than the analog ones; at the same time, they can be less expensive.
In the analogical ones, the field of measurement is displayed, in
the digital ones not.
Analogs do not give an appreciable value of an oscillating or
instantly variable magnitude.
Digital is directly polarized, i.e., red is positive and black is
negative; analog is inversely polarized, i.e., black is positive and red
is negative.
In analogues it is convenient to take care of the polarity so as not
to deteriorate the needle and always measure on the appropriate
scale; if the magnitude range is not known, one should start
measuring on the highest scale.
Characteristics that measuring instruments must
have

Accuracy or faithfulness
Consistency between the indicated value and the actual value of
the measured quantity.

Precision
Ability to discriminate small variations in magnitude. An instrument
is also said to be precise when it has good resolution.

Sensitivity
Ability to respond to small variations in magnitude.

Speed of display
The ability of the device to respond immediately is applied to the
magnitude.

Scope
Ratio of highest possible reading to lowest, except zero. If the
minimum value that an ammeter can indicate is for example and

the maximum is , the scope will be .

REVIEW
Concepts
☐ Define or discuss the following:

Analogue display instrument.

Digital display instrument.

Ammeter.

Shunt resistance.

Voltmeter.

Ohmmeter.

Connecting the measuring instruments:

Ammeter.
Voltmeter.
Ohmmeter.

Accuracy of a
measuring instrument.

Precision.

Sensitivity.

Speed.

Scope.
 Chapter 5
RESISTIVE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

For the technician, Kirchhoff's laws are useful tools for circuit
analysis, no matter how complex. Remember that the law of voltages
establishes that the algebraic sum of the voltages around a mesh is
zero; the law of currents establishes that the sum of currents entering
a node is always equal to the sum of those leaving. It was also noted
that in KLV and KLC applications it is necessary to designate the
polarities of the voltages between the terminals of the elements and
the direction of the flow of electrons in the node of a circuit.
Kirchhoff's laws, therefore, in conjunction with Ohm's law, are the
cornerstone upon which all circuit analysis is built. This, in turn, in its
most elemental form, has as its first concepts those that we will see
in the following sections and that we enumerate initially as:
1. Equivalent resistance.

2. Delta to Star Conversion and Star to Delta

.

3. Voltage and current dividers.

4. Mesh analysis.

5. Node analysis.

Equivalent resistance

Connections in series
 A group of elements are connected in series when they are
connected in such a way that the same current flows through them.
Figure 5.1.

Figure 5-1. Resistors connected in series.

So, in the circuit, the total applied voltage will be distributed

proportionally on each of the resistors so that, according to the
Kirchhoff's Law of Voltages:

If we use Ohm's law to determine the value of the different

voltages:

Where, solving , we get:

Since V and i are the total voltage and current in the circuit, the
relationship V/i will be the equivalent resistance. Meaning:

(5.
1)
Equivalent resistance in series
In the series circuit the total resistance or equivalent, in
front of the source, is equal to the sum of the values of the individual
resistors, figure 5.2.

Figure 5-2. Equivalent resistance of resistances connected in series.

Parallel connections
A group of elements are connected in parallel, when they are
linked in such a way that the same voltage is applied to them. Figure
5.3.

Figure 5-3. Resistances connected in parallel.

We can see that the total current is distributed over the different
branches, in an amount that is proportional to the value of the
resistances present. Following Kirchhoff's law of currents and Ohm's
law:
 As in the previous case, and are the total voltage and current

in the circuit and therefore , it can be written , where:

(5.
2)

Equivalent resistance in parallel

In a parallel circuit the inverse of the equivalent resistance is equal
to the sum of the inverses of the individual resistances taken. Figure
5.4.

Figure 5-4. Equivalent resistance of resistances connected in parallel.

Equivalent conductance
Parallel conductances are combined in the same way as series
resistances, and series conductances are combined in the same way
as parallel resistances.

EXAMPLE 5.1
Determine the equivalent resistance and conductance in the circuit
from figure 5.5.

Figure 5-5. Circuit from example 5.1.

SOLUTION
Since the resistances are connected in series, using the equation
(5.1).

And using the equation for conductance:

EXAMPLE 5.2
Determine the equivalent resistance for the given circuit in the figure
5.6.

Figure 5-6. Circuit from example 5.2.

SOLUTION
Using equation (5.2) to calculate the equivalent resistance of resistors
connected in parallel, we get:

Meaning:

EXAMPLE 5.3
Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in the figure
5.7.
 Figure 5-7. Circuit from example 5.3.

SOLUTION
Since the resistances are in parallel, we use the equation (5.2).

Meaning:

As a conclusion we can say that the equivalent resistance of two

resistances connected in parallel is equal to the product of the
resistances divided by the sum of those same resistances.

Parallel-serial connections
 To resolve circuits which are connected in a series-parallel
combination it is recommended to follow the following procedure:
1. Identify all nodes.
2. Identify serial sections and parallel sections.
3. Simplify each individual section, using the equations listed.
4. Insert the elements between the correct nodes.
5. Reduce to or .

EXAMPLE 5.4
Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in figure 5.8.

SOLUTION
Note that the sections between nodes A and B and between nodes C
and D are parallel, and these in turn are in series with resistances of
and .

Figure 5-8. Circuit from example 5.4.

We first reduce the sections in parallel:

 The circuit is reduced to the circuit in figure 5.8.1:

Figure 5-8-1. Simplified example circuit 5.4.

Where all the resistances are in series:

EXAMPLE 5.5
Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in figure 5.9.

Figure 5-9. Circuit from example 5.5.

SOLUTION
We can see that the serial resistances are parallel
between them. The circuit can be simplified as follows:

Figure 5-9-1. Simplified circuit from example 5.5.

And the equivalent resistance is:

If one wanted to know the conductance, it would be:

Equivalent capacity and equivalent

inductance
In the same way as with a purely resistive circuit, an equivalent
resistance can be found for a purely capacitive or purely inductive
circuit.
The inverse of the equivalent capacity of condensers connected in
series is equal to the sum of the inverses of the capacities taken
individually, i.e.:
 (5.
3)

Similarly, the equivalent capacity of condensers connected in

parallel is equal to the sum of the capacities taken individually, i.e.:
As you can see, these laws are contrary to the ones we saw for
resistances.
In the case of coils, on the other hand, you have:
The equivalent inductance of coils connected in series is equal to
the sum of the inductances taken individually, i.e.:
(5.
5)
Similarly, the inverse of the equivalent inductance of coils
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the inverses of the coils
taken individually, i.e.:

(5.
6)

Delta to Star Conversion ( ) and Star to Delta (

)
Alternatively, for these versions, the names are
used. With reference to figure 5.10. The formulas for these
conversions are:
Figure 5-10. Delta-to-Star and Star-to-Delta conversions (a) Delta circuit; (b) Star circuit; (c)
Conversions.

(5.
7)

(5.
8)
(5.
9)

(5.1
0)

(5.1
1)

(5.1
2)

EXAMPLE 5.6
Determine the equivalent resistance and equivalent conductance for
the bridge circuit shown in figure 5.11.

SOLUTION
The superior circuit, through the nodes wxy, is transformed into
circuits , through the equations given in (5.7) to (5.12).

We give the denomination to the internal node from circuit and

the equivalent is inserted in the nodes wxy, figure 5.11 (c),
therefore is in serie with and is in serie with .
Therefore and . Likewise,
and
.
Figure 5-11. Example circuit 5.6. (a) Given circuit. (b) Conversion of the upper Delta to Y. (c)
Simplified circuit.

Voltage and current dividers

Voltage dividers
Sometimes we are interested in knowing the voltage at the
terminals of a given resistance in a series circuit. Figure 5.12. The
voltage at the terminals of any resistance , is equal to the
product of the applied voltage by divided by the sum of the
resistances, in the serial circuit:
 (5.1
3)

From equation (5.13), we can see that the voltage is directly

proportional to the resistance .
It is important to note that this principle of the voltage divider
applies only to serial circuits where the current through all elements is
the same.

Figure 5-12. Voltage divider.

Current divider
In a circuit that has n branches connected in parallel, figure 5.13,
sometimes you want to know the current in a given branch. Current
in a branch is equal to the product of the current applied by
the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit divided by .
 (5.1
4)

The principle of current dividers applies only to parallel circuits, in

which the voltage for all components is the same.

Figure 5-13. Current divider.

EXAMPLE 5.7
Use voltage dividers to determine the voltage at the circuit
resistances in figure 5.14.

SOLUTION
Following equation (5.13) we get:

Figure 5-14. Circuit from example 5.7.

EXAMPLE 5.8
Use current dividers to determine the currents indicated in the circuit
in figure 5.15.

Figure 5-15. Circuit from example 5.8.

SOLUTION
is the result of the parallel of , and , which is ;
via equation (5.14) we get:
Mesh analysis
A mesh is a closed trajectory, with no other closed trajectories inside;
a loop is a closed trajectory, but it can have others inside, that is,
every mesh is a loop, but not every loop is a mesh.
The method used to give solution to a circuit using mesh analysis
consists of the following steps:
1. Assume mesh currents in any direction.

2. Voltage direction signs are placed for each element,

taking the direction of the mesh current as a reference;
each component can have different voltage directions,
due to two different mesh currents in different meshes.
The sources have fixed voltage polarity.

3. Write Kirchhoff's voltage equations for each mesh. This

can be done in any direction, although it is suggested that
you follow the one that indicates the mesh current.

4. Rewrite the equations in an orderly fashion and solve the

resulting system.

For the solution of the system of equations obtained, any of the

known algebraic methods can be used, namely: elimination,
equalization, substitution, determinants.

EXAMPLE 5.9
For the circuit in figure 5.16 (a), write the mesh equations.

SOLUTION
In figure 5.16 (b) the mesh currents are assumed to flow clockwise.
Similarly, the polarity directions of the voltages of all circuit elements
are indicated.

Figure 5-16. Mesh analysis. (a) Given circuit. (b) Assumed current and voltage directions in
the elements.

The application of Kirchhoff's law for the first mesh is:

 Also:

For the second mesh:

Also:

This is how we get the system of equations:

If we would like to go further and find the values of the mesh

currents, we recommend the method of determinants.

Determinants
A square matrix of numbers enclosed by vertical lines on each side
is called a determinant. A determinant of second order is
expressed by:

(5.1
5)

Where an element is generally designated as . For example, in

equation (5.15), is in the second row and the first column of the
DET determinant.
 A third order determinant is expressed as follows:

(5.1
6)

EXAMPLE 5.10
Given the system of equations obtained in the previous example,
using determinants, calculate the value of .

SOLUTION
The proposed system of equations is:

The determinant of the coefficients is:

Where the main diagonal DP, and the secondary diagonal DS are
observed. The value of DET is equal to the product of the elements of
the principal diagonal, minus the product of the elements of the
secondary diagonal. Therefore:

If you want to know the value of an unknown, such as

in the determinant
of the coefficients for the forced functions of the circuit. Then, through
Cramer's rule:
(5.1
7)
 The forced functions of the proposed system of equations are 12
and 15V and by the equation (5.17).

Node analysis
Node analysis is another method for circuit solution. It is used to
determine voltage values when current values are known. For circuit
solution by this method the following procedure can be followed:
1. Identify all nodes and designate them with a letter or a
number.
2. Choose one of the nodes as a reference (zero volt or
ground).
3. Assume that all other nodes are at a higher potential than
the ground.
4. Assume currents in the elements. Any direction is
assumed between nodes other than the reference node.
Between a node and the reference node, the currents
preferably entering the reference node.
5. The direction of the voltage is adapted to the assumed
direction of the current. Figure 5.17.
 6. Apply Kirchhoff's law of currents to each node, except the
reference node.

Figure 5-17. Voltage direction for assumed current directions I.

EXAMPLE 5.11
For the circuit in figure 5.18 determine the node equations.

SOLUTION
The nodes are designated as A, B, C and D. Node D is chosen as a
reference. Directions are assumed for the currents.
 Figure 5-18. Circuit from example 5.11.

As shown in figure 5.18. By applying Kirchhoff's law of currents to

nodes other than the reference node, we get:

Node A ​ ​

Node B ​ ​

Node C ​ ​
And expressing these currents in terms of voltage we get:

Node A ​ ​

Node B ​ ​

Node C ​ ​
By the method of determinants and Cramer's rule you can obtain
the value of . We leave it as a proposed exercise.
REVIEW
Concepts
Define or discuss the following:
☐ Resistive circuit analysis.
☐ Equivalent resistance in a series circuit.
☐ Equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit.
☐ Equivalent conductance.
☐ Serial-parallel Circuit.
☐ Circuit in delta.
☐ Circuit in star.
☐ Star to delta conversion.
☐ Delta to star conversion.
☐ Voltage divider.
☐ Current divider.
☐ Analysis of malfunctions in the solution circuits.
☐ Node analysis in the solution of circuits.
☐ Determinants.

EXERCISES
5.1. Determine the equivalent resistance and equivalent
conductance for the series circuits in Figure 5.19.
 Figure 5-19. Circuit from exercise 5.1.

5.2. Determine the equivalent resistance and equivalent

conductance for the series circuits in Figure 5.19.

Figure 5-20. Circuit from exercise 5.2.

5.3. Determine the equivalent resistance and equivalent

conductance for the mixed circuits in Figure 5.21.
 Figure 5-21. Circuit from exercise 5.3.

5.4. Use star to delta and delta to star conversion to find the
equivalent resistance of the circuits in figure 5.22.
 Figure 5-22. Circuit from exercise 5.4.

5.5. Use voltage dividers to calculate the value of the voltage at

the resistance of 9Ω in the circuit in figure 5.23.
 Figure 5-23. Circuit from exercise 5.5.
5.6. In the circuit shown in figure 5.24. Determine the value at
which you should set the potentiometer, , so that fall on
the resistance.

Figure 5-24. Circuit from exercise 5.6.

5.7. Use current dividers to determine the current flowing through

the resistance in the circuit shown in figure 5.25.
 Figure 5-25. Circuit from exercise 5.7.

5.8. In the circuit shown in figure 5.26 the value of potentiometer

. Calculate the current that runs through it the
moment it is in position: (a) minimum, (b) intermediate and (c)
maximum.

Figure 5-26. Circuit from exercise 5.8.

5.9. Determine the mesh equations for the circuit in figure 5.27.

Figure 5-27. Circuit from exercise 5.9.

5.10. Determine the mesh equations for the circuit in Figure
5.28.

Figure 5-28. Circuit from exercise 5.10.

5.11. Determine the mesh equations for the circuit in Figure

5.29.

Figure 5-29. Circuit from exercise 5.11.

5.12. Determine the node equations for the circuit in figure

5.27.
5.13. Determine the node equations for the circuit in figure
5.28.
5.14. Determine the node equations for the circuit in figure
5.29.
5.15. Use determinants to solve the systems of equations
obtained in the solution of the exercises set out in numbers
5.9 to 5.14 and verify that the values of voltages and currents
obtained for the same circuit by the different methods are the
same.
5.16. Once the voltages and currents of the circuits set out in
numbers 5.9 to 5.14 are known, make a final power balance
and show that the power supplied by the active elements of
the circuit is equal to the power absorbed by the passive
elements of the circuit.
 Chapter 6
ACADEMIC SUPPORT GUIDE

Electricity is a science which cannot be purely theoretical nor

eminently practical, in the sense of empirical, lacking completely in
conceptualization. Rather, it must be made into a theoretical-practical
combination, through which a domain as perfect as possible is
reached, which requires a particularly good knowledge of the causes
and effects of the elements interacting with different signals, and thus
to have the precautions that make it a "safe" science.
Well (cautiously) managed, electricity can be an easily applied
science, but any carelessness in its handling makes it a field, not so
much difficult as dangerous.
A coil, for example, with direct current, is an open short circuit,
while a direct current capacitor behaves like an open circuit. That is,
a coil which is connected in parallel with other elements, which is fed
by a DC source, can cause serious damages: while a capacitor in
series with other elements, which is fed by a DC source, prevents
any current circulation, and therefore resistance and other elements
will be disabled.
Theory explains all this, and practice proves it.
The present chapter, as a guide of academic support, proposes a
series of laboratory practices by means of which all the effects,
phenomena and laws raised in the theory are verified; at the same
time that by its understanding a greater simulation of all the previously
treated context is arrived at.
During practice, students will take data information from their
assembled circuits, and with these they will make a subsequent
analysis and present a report that will help measure their degree of
assimilation, as well as their failures and possible ways to correct
them.
PRACTICE N°1

RESISTANCE IDENTIFICATION
GOALS
1. Managing the different methods used in resistance
measurement: the ohmmeter and the color code.

2. Understand the importance of the concept of tolerance

and tolerance range for resistances.

PROCEDURE
1. Randomly choose a suitable number of resistances (from
15 to 20).

2. Using the color code printed on the resistors, determine

the value of each one.

3. Calculate a tolerance interval for each resistance.

4. Measure the value of each resistance, using either an

analog or a digital tester. Which of the two tester seems
more accurate to you? Why?

5. Compare the results obtained in numbers 2 and 4. Do you

think they match the respective tolerances?

6. Measure the resistive value of other elements

(capacitors, coils, etc.), supplied for practice.

REPORT
 1. Create a results table showing the value of each
resistance by the different methods, in addition to the
tolerance range.

2. Analyze the results achieved.

3. Submit your findings.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a potentiometer and a
rheostat?

2. What types of commercial resistances are there?

3. Why do you think a tolerance value is important?

PRACTICE N°2

RESISTANCE
CHARACTERIZATION
GOALS
1. Characterize resistive elements in linear and non-linear
mode by voltage current.

2. Determine the value of resistance once the voltage-

current characteristic is known.

PROCEDURE
1. Make a circuit (as shown in the figure below) with a
variable DC voltage source, an ammeter, a voltmeter and
a resistor:
a. Of carbon.
b. Of filament (a light bulb).

Figure 6-1. Circuit 1 from practice 2.

2. Fill in Table 6-1, determining R from current (A) and

voltage (V) (Ohm's Law).
 Table 6-1. Table of practice 2, point 2 of the procedure.
AV R

3. Repeat the exercise, but instead of a variable DC source

use an AC source (Transformer). To do this vary insert a
potentiometer, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 6-2. Circuit 2 from practice 2.

4. Fill in Table 6-2, determining R from the current ( ) and

voltage (V) (Ohm's Law).
 Table 6-2. Table of practice 2, point 3 of the procedure.
AV R

REPORT
1. Submit the tables with the results.

2. Make V vs. I charts for each case.

3. Analyze the results.

4. Submit conclusions.

QUESTIONS
1. How do the resistances in D.C. and A.C. vary? How does
the R of carbon vary in relation to that of the filament?

2. In which cases is the resistance linear, and in which

cases is it non-linear?
PRACTICE N°3

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCES
GOALS
1. Strengthen knowledge of ohmmeter measurements (both
analog and digital) and color coding.

2. Theoretically and practically contrast the concept of

series resistors, parallel resistances and equivalent
resistances.

PROCEDURE
1. Using the color code determine the value of the selected
resistances (10 to 15). Check these resistive values with
the analog and digital tester.

2. Make a series of two resistances and determine the color

of the equivalent resistance according to color code and
tester, both analog and digital.

3. Repeat the exercise, but with three resistances. The two

previous ones, plus another.

4. Continue to add one resistance and repeat the

procedure.

5. Repeat the above procedure in its entirety but place all

resistances in parallel.
REPORT
1. Submit a table like the one below, with all the results
obtained in the series resistance exercise; repeat for
parallel resistance.

Table 6-3. Table of practice 4, point 1 of the report.

COLO
SERIAL RESISTANCES ANALOG DIGITAL
R
(PARALLELS) METER METER
CODE

Note: To find the value according to the color code, use the
following formulas:

1. Analyze the results.

2. Submit your conclusions.

QUESTIONS
1. How is the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in
series compared to resistors taken individually?

2. Same question, but in the case of the parallel circuit.

3. Which of all the resistance measurement methods do you

think is:

a. The most comfortable.

b. The most practical.
c. The most accurate.
PRACTICE N°4

HANDLING OF D.C.
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
GOALS
1. Identify the measuring devices for voltages and currents.

2. Make voltage and current measurements using a

voltmeter and ammeter.

3. Observe the precautions for connection and operation of

the various measuring instruments.

4. Familiarize yourself with the assembly of series, parallel

and mixed circuits.

PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the following circuits:
a. Resistive series circuit.

Figure 6-3. Circuit 1 from practice 4.

b. Parallel-resistive circuit.
 Figure 6-4. Circuit 2 from practice 4.

c. Parallel-series circuit (mixed).

Figure 6-5. Circuit 3 from practice 4.

Start with a D.C. source and measure voltage and current at

different points with both analog and digital measuring
equipment.

REPORT
1. For each circuit, draw up a table with the results
obtained.

2. Analyze the results.

3. Submit your conclusions.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain: How should an ammeter and a voltmeter be
connected, and what would happen if they were not
connected like this?

2. According to their principle of operation. How are the

measuring devices classified?
PRACTICE N°5

HANDLING OF A.C.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
GOALS
Reaffirming those set out for practice No.4.

PROCEDURE
Make the same assemblies presented in practice No.4 but
use A.C. sources (Transformers) for the effect).

REPORT
Follow the items set out for practice No.4.
PRACTICE N°6

MANAGING THE
OSCILLOSCOPE
GOALS
1. Learn the operation and calibration of the oscilloscope, as
well as how to perform AC and DC measurements.

2. Calculate the period and frequency of a sine wave and a

square wave.

3. Know the precautions to take in relation to:

a. Supply voltage.
b. Input signals.
c. Tilt of the horizontal line.
d. Intensity.
e. Operation of a strong magnetic field.

PROCEDURE
1. Read the oscilloscope manual carefully.

2. Identify the constituent parts of the oscilloscope and their

specific function.

3. Observe several types of waves at different frequencies

and amplitudes.

4. Make a series circuit and measure on each element.

a. Peak to peak voltage ( ).

 b. Peak voltage ( ).
c. Efficient voltage ( ).

5. Compare these values with those obtained with an AC

voltmeter.

6. Make a circuit with linear (carbon) resistance and DC

source. Measure the signals and check this value with the
one obtained with a DC measuring instrument.

7. Use a waveform generator and determine the period and

frequency of a square wave and a sine wave.

REPORT
1. Draw up the circuit diagrams of the circuits assembled in
the laboratory, indicating the respective measuring
equipment.

2. Create a table of data and results.

3. Clearly indicate the data conducted where necessary.

4. Make the graphs obtained in the laboratory with the

oscilloscope.

5. Analyze the results and submit your conclusions.

PRACTICE N°7

KIRCHHOFF LAWS
GOALS
1. Checking Kirchhoff's laws: Distribution of voltages in
meshes and currents in nodes.

PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the following circuits.

a. Resistive series.
b. Parallel resistive.
c. Resistive - capacitive series.

2. Take the necessary readings in order to check Kirchhoff's

laws.

REPORT
1. Draw the circuit diagrams of the assembled circuits
during practice with the respective measuring
instruments.

2. Make and record the calculations made for each circuit.

3. Create tables of data and results.

4. Submit your conclusions.

QUESTIONS
1. Do Kirchhoff's laws apply to both direct and alternating
current?
2. How should Kirchhoff's laws be applied to circuits that
have resistors, coils, capacitors and AC source?
PRACTICE N°8

RLC CIRCUITS
GOALS
1. Know the different effects of alternating current and direct
current in circuits which have coils and capacitors.

2. Correctly observe the precautions to be taken when

working with coils and capacitors under direct current
effect.

PROCEDURE
1. Conduct the assembly of an RL (Resistance - Coil) circuit
in series and apply a:

a. Direct current.
b. Alternating current.

2. Repeat the previous point, but with an RC circuit in

series.

3. Repeat the above point but with a serial RLC circuit.

4. Assemble the following circuits:

a. Parallel RL.
b. Parallel RC.
c. Parallel RLC.

5. Apply an ALTERNATE current source in each case and

make voltage measurements on each component.
REPORT
1. Draw up the diagrams of the assembled circuits, including
the measuring devices.

2. Make a table with the results obtained.

3. Analyze the results.

4. Submit your conclusions.

QUESTIONS
1. Why cannot direct current be applied to a parallel circuit
with a coil and condensers?

2. What is the behavior of:

a. A coil.
b. A condenser.

With direct current. And how it behaves with alternating

current.
PRACTICE N°9

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

DIVIDERS
GOALS
1. Implementing a concrete application of resistances (fixed
and variable).

2. Qualify and quantify the effects of resistances when

connected in series (voltage divider) and when connected
in parallel (current divider).

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate the value of the resistances required to obtain
the intended results, from the known values, in the
following circuits.
 Figure 6-6. Circuit 1 from practice 9.

1. Theoretically solve the following problems.

Figure 6-7. Circuit 2 from practice 9.

2. If possible, mount the proposed circuits, measure the

required voltage, and current values. Are they the same
as those calculated?
GLOSSARY
Analogue: Similarity in some aspects between different things that
are in fact different.
Current source: In theory, a source that produces a constant
current through a load resistance of any value.
Extent: Size of a signal, usually its peak value.

Free electron: That which alone, is weakly held by an atom. Also

known as the conduction band electron because it describes a large
orbit, equivalent to high energy.
Open: Refers to a component or connecting cable that has an
open circuit and is equivalent to a large resistance tending to infinity.
RMS value: Used in weather-dependent signals. Also known as
effective value. It is the equivalent value of a DC source that would
produce the same amount of heat or power over the full cycle of a
time-dependent signal.
Short circuit: Widespread problem in the circuits. It occurs when
a resistance becomes extremely small, almost zero. This is why the
voltage in a short circuit tends to zero, although the current can be
exceptionally large. A component may have an internal short circuit,
or an external short circuit from welding spatter, or a badly made
connection.
Short circuit protection: It means that the power supply has
some way of protecting itself in case of excessive current in the
charge.
Temperature Coefficient: Rate of change of a variable with
respect to temperature.
Thermistor: Device with resistance that changes greatly with
temperature.
 Voltage source: The source that produces a constant voltage in
the charge for any value of the charge resistance.
INDEX OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1. Phenomenon of attraction and repulsion.

Figure 1-2. Positive and negative charges that bodies acquire when they
are rubbed.
Figure 1-3. Atomic constitution of hydrogen, helium and beryllium.
Figure 1-4. Energy levels and sub-levels.
Figure 2-1. Energy transfer at a hydroelectric plant.
Figure 2-2. Real sense of the current.
Figure 2-3. Conventional sense of the current.
Figure 2-4. Movement of electrons without an electric field.
Figure 2-5. Movement of electrons with electronic field.
Figure 2-6. Direct current.
Figure 2-7. Alternating current.
Figure 2-8. Elementary circuit.
Figure 2-9. Level difference (comparable to a difference in potential).
Figure 2-10. The difference in level remains constant.
Figure 3-1. (a) Volta battery, (b) Schematic symbol for a battery.
Figure 3-2. (a) Composition of a battery (b) symbol for a battery.
Figure 3-3. Accumulator, indicating generator G, for charging.
Figure 3-4. Analogy for a battery.
Figure 3-5. Representation of independent sources (a) of voltage (b) of
current.
Figure 3-6. Power (a) supplied and (b) Absorbed.
Figure 3-7. Analogy of an alternating current generator.
Figure 3-8. Depiction of controlled sources.
Figure 3-9. Graphic depiction of a resistance.
Figure 3-10. Several types of resistance.
Figure 3-11. Resistance varies with the length and cross section of the
conductor.
Figure 3-12. Curve of resistance variation caused by temperature for
lead.
Figure 3-13. Rheostat construction principle.
Figure 3-14. Rheostat symbol.
Figure 3-15. Analogy for a rheostat.
Figure 3-16. Potentiometer analogy.
Figure 3-17. Chart connecting Ohm's law and Joule's law (summary of
formulas).
Figure 3-18. Symbol of an inductance or coil.
Figure 3-19. Iron core coil.
Figure 3-20. Symbol of a capacity or capacitor.
Figure 3-21. Impregnated paper and ceramic condenser constructions.
Figure 3-22. (a) Variable capacitor with air dielectric (b) "Trimmer"
variable capacitor.
Figure 3-23. Analogy for a condenser.
Figure 3-24. Parallel plate capacitor.
Figure 3-25. Protoboard seen from above.
Figure 3-26. Protoboard seen from below and inside.
Figure 3-27. Connection of an IC on the protoboard.
Figure 3-28. (a) Electric circuit (b) How to make welded connections.
Figure 3-29. Circuit connections on the protoboard.
Figure 3-30. Connection or splicing in a circuit.
Figure 3-31. Circuit of the exercise 3.16.
Figure 3-32. Mesh or closed path.
Figure 3-33. Circuit from problem 3.1.
Figure 3-34. Circuit from problem 3.9.
Figure 3-35. Circuit from problem 3.10.

Figure 4-1. (a) Simpson commercial multimeter (b) Analog scale of a

multimeter.
Figure 4-2. Arrangement of the parts in a galvanometer.
Figure 4-3. Symbol for a galvanometer.
Figure 4-4. Symbol for the ammeter.
Figure 4-5. Ammeter shunt.
Figure 4-6. Symbol for a voltmeter.
Figure 4-7. Construction of a voltmeter.
Figure 4-8. Symbol of an Ohmmeter.
Figure 4-9. Fundamental series circuit of an ohmmeter.
Figure 4-10. Block diagram of a digital measuring instrument.
Figure 4-11. Cover of an oscilloscope.
Figure 4-12. Connection of a measuring instrument to measure (a)
Current (b) Voltage (c) Resistance.

Figure 5-1. Resistors connected in series.

Figure 5-2. Equivalent resistance of resistances connected in series.
Figure 5-3. Resistances connected in parallel.
Figure 5-4. Equivalent resistance of resistances connected in parallel.
Figure 5-5. Circuit from example 5.1.
Figure 5-6. Circuit from example 5.2.
Figure 5-7. Circuit from example 5.3.
Figure 5-8. Circuit from example 5.4.
Figure 5-9. Circuit from example 5.5.
Figure 5-10. Delta-to-Star and Star-to-Delta conversions (a) Delta
circuit; (b) Star circuit; (c) Conversions.
Figure 5-11. Example circuit 5.6. (a) Given circuit. (b) Conversion of the
upper Delta to Y. (c) Simplified circuit.
Figure 5-12. Voltage divider.
Figure 5-13. Current divider.
Figure 5-14. Circuit from example 5.7.
Figure 5-15. Circuit from example 5.8.
Figure 5-16. Mesh analysis. (a) Given circuit. (b) Assumed current and
voltage directions in the elements.
Figure 5-17. Voltage direction for assumed current directions I.
Figure 5-18. Circuit from example 5.11.
Figure 5-19. Circuit from exercise 5.1.
Figure 5-20. Circuit from exercise 5.2.
Figure 5-21. Circuit from exercise 5.3.
Figure 5-22. Circuit from exercise 5.4.
Figure 5-23. Circuit from exercise 5.5.
Figure 5-24. Circuit from exercise 5.6.
Figure 5-25. Circuit from exercise 5.7.
Figure 5-26. Circuit from exercise 5.8.
Figure 5-27. Circuit from exercise 5.9.
Figure 5-28. Circuit from exercise 5.10.
Figure 5-29. Circuit from exercise 5.11.
Figure 6-1. Circuit 1 from practice 2.
Figure 6-2. Circuit 2 from practice 2.
Figure 6-3. Circuit 1 from practice 4.
Figure 6-4. Circuit 2 from practice 4.
Figure 6-5. Circuit 3 from practice 4.
Figure 6-6. Circuit 1 from practice 9.
Figure 6-7. Circuit 2 from practice 9.
INDEX OF TABLES

Table 1-1. Atomic particles.

Table 1-2. Conductor, semiconductor and insulator materials.
Table 2-1. Dielectric constant.
Table 2-2. Main electrical quantities.
Table 2-3. Prefixes used with electrical quantities.
Table 3-1. Resistivity of some elements at 20°C.
Table 3-2. Temperature coefficients of some metals at 0°.
Table 3-3. Typical characteristic of commonly used fixed capacitors.
Table 6-1. Table of practice 2, point 2 of the procedure.
Table 6-2. Table of practice 2, point 3 of the procedure.
Table 6-3. Table of practice 4, point 1 of the report.
ALBEIRO PATIÑO BUILES
Electrical engineer. With specializations in Literary Hermeneutics and High
Management; also, Master in Strategic Management, Planning and Management
Control of the IEE of Spain. He has received numerous awards, including first place
in the II National Novel Award - National Culture Awards of the University of
Antioquia (2006) and first place in the First Short Story Competition of the
Association of Employees of the Colombian Industrial Bank (1996). His literary
publications are: Historias cruzadas (short stories, 1994), Bandidos y hackers
(novel, 2007), Phishing (novel, 2010), Construir una novela. Cómo orientarse en el
proceso de creación literaria (essay, 2011), Intimidación (novel, 2014), Galán,
crónica de un magnicidio (novel, 2014), Las intermitencias del corazón I.
Melancolía y enajenación (novel, 2016), La forja de un escritor (essay, 2017),
Sombras en la Red (novel, 2019) and Las intermitencias del corazón ll. Celos y
dolor (novel, 2019).
Science and Technology

2023